1

Ecosystems Ecology
Ecosystems An energy processing
and nutrient generating system
2
Biosphere- part of the Earth, including air, land,
surface rocks and water, within which life
occurs.

From the broadest biophysiological point of
view, the biosphere is the global ecological
system integrating all living beings and their
relationships, including their interaction with the
elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere.
3
Lithosphere rocky material about 100km deep
first 1000m is substrate of life
primary source of nutrients

Hydrosphere body of liquid
oceans, lakes, rivers, aquifers, frozen water (ice
caps, glaciers) and water vapour

4
The Earths Life-
Support Systems
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere
5
The Nature of Ecology
Organisms
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
6
All Ecosystems consist of 3 basic
components
1. Producers autotrophs energy capturing
green plants, algae, diatoms
2. Consumers (including decomposers)
heterotrophs utilise food/energy stored in
producers
Those that feed on living tissue
Decomposers break down dead organic matter
(detritus) into inorganic substances basis for nutrient
cycling
3. Inorganic and dead organic matter (plant and
consumers) in soil matrix and aquatic systems

7
Essential Processes in Ecosystems
Energy and nutrients are incorporated into
ecosystems via photosynthesis and ends with
decomposition
Photo fixes light & incorporates nutrients into
tissue C
3
, C
4
and CAM, Diatoms, Algae
Decomposition dissipates energy and reduces
organic matter to inorganic substances CO
2
,
H
2
O, PO
4
, SO
4
+ heat
8
Energy flows through an ecosystem
Entering as light and exiting as heat
Figure 54.2
Microorganisms
and other
detritivores
Detritus
Primary producers
Primary consumers
Secondary
consumers
Tertiary
consumers
Sun
Key
Chemical cycling
Energy flow
Heat
9
Ecosystems can range from a microcosm, such
as an aquarium
To a large area such as a lake or forest
Figure 54.1
10
Regardless of an ecosystems size
Its dynamics involve two main
processes:
energy flow (1) and chemical cycling (2)
Energy flows through ecosystems (1)
While matter cycles within them (2)
The biotic and abiotic exchange energy and
matter
11
Sustaining Life of Earth
One-way flow
of energy
Cycling of
matter
12
Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and
chemical cycling

Ecosystem ecologists view ecosystems
As transformers of energy and processors of matter
13
Ecosystems and Physical Laws
The laws of physics and chemistry apply to
ecosystems
Particularly in regard to the flow of energy

Energy is conserved (neither created nor
destroyed)
It may change form, pass from one place to
another and act upon matter in various way
But degraded to heat during ecosystem processes
The First Law of Thermodynamics
14
The two laws of thermodynamics
(a)
First law of thermodynamics:
Energy can be transferred or
transformed but neither created nor
destroyed.
For example, the chemical (potential)
energy in food will be converted to
the kinetic energy of the cheetahs
movement in (b).
Second law of thermodynamics: Every energy transfer or transformation
increases the disorder (entropy) of the universe.
For example, disorder (entropy) is added to the cheetahs surroundings
in the form of heat and the small molecules that are the by-products
of metabolism.
(b)
Chemical
energy
Heat
co
2

H
2
O
+
15
Trophic Relationships
Energy and nutrients pass from primary
producers (autotrophs)
to primary consumers (herbivores)
and then to secondary consumers (carnivores)
16
Trophic Relationships
17
Primary
consumer
Secondary
consumer
Secondary
consumer
Primary
consumer
18
The Biotic Components of Ecosystems
Producers
(autotrophs)
Photosynthesis
Consumers
(heterotrophs)
Aerobic
respiration
Decomposers
19
Trophic Levels (Consumer)
Primary consumer (herbivore)
Secondary consumer (carnivore)
Tertiary consumer (top predator)
Omnivore
Detritivores and scavengers
Decomposers
20
Connections: Food Webs and Energy Flow in
Ecosystems
Food chains Food webs
21
Decomposition
Decomposition
Connects all trophic levels
22
The lost of
energy thru
respiration
Flow of energy
associated
with ingestion
Combination
of dead
organic
matter and
waste
products
(feces and
urine)
23
Detritivores, mainly bacteria and fungi,
recycle essential chemical elements
By decomposing organic material and returning
elements to inorganic reservoirs
24
Decomposers
Microflora (bacteria and fungi that inhabit an area)
Bacteria
aerobic (facultative or obligate) , anaerobic (fermentation)
Dominant decomposers of animal matter
Fungi dominant decomposers of plant matter
Detritivores or detritus feeder (play the role as
decomposer)
4 major groups soil microfauna (protozoans), soil
mesofauna (nematodes), soil macrofauna (earthworm), soil
megafauna (earthworm or small invertebrate)
Microbivores (microorganism feeding on decomposer)
mesofauna & macrofauna feed on bacteria & fungi
and are important for dispersal of fungal spores in soil
25
26
Ecosystem Energy Budgets
The extent of photosynthetic production
Sets the spending limit for the energy budget of the
entire ecosystem
27
The Global Energy Budget
The amount of solar radiation reaching the
surface of the Earth
Limits the photosynthetic output of ecosystems

Only a small fraction of solar energy
Actually strikes photosynthetic organisms
28
The Source of Energy
29
Physical and chemical factors limit primary
production in ecosystems

Primary production in an ecosystem
Is the amount of light energy converted to
chemical energy by autotrophs during a given time
period
Light energy converted to product
30
Gross and Net Primary Production
Total primary production in an ecosystem
Is known as that ecosystems gross primary production
(GPP)
GPP is total rate of the photosynthesis or energy
assimilated by the autotroph

Not all of this production
Is stored as organic material in the growing plants
Only NPP is available to consumers

NPP = GPP - R
Net primary
productivity
Gross
primary
productivity
Respiration
by autotroph
31
GPP measures the total amount of organic matter
produced by the autotroph in the ecosystem.
This includes the matter that plants use for
respiration.
NPP measures the total amount of matter
produced that is available to heterotrophs.
The GPP minus the matter used (respiration) by
the plant is the NPP.

Gross and Net Primary Production
32
Secondary Productivity
Amount of production/energy available to heterotrophs
1) Energy (in the form of plant) consumed passes from the
body as waste products (feces and urine)
2) Part is used as heat for metabolism (respiration)
3) The remainder is available for maintenance
- capturing or harvest food, perform muscular work
- usually lost to the env. as heat
Energy left from maintenance and respiration goes into
production
- growth of new tissue and production of young
This net energy of production is called secondary production
Aka the rate of biomass accumulation by heterotrophs
(herbivores, carnivores and detritivores).
33

34
Example of Primary Productivity
In tropical forests and in marshlands, between 1500
and 3000 grams of organic material are normally
produced per square meter per year.
Corresponding figures for other communities are:
temperate forests, 1100 to 1500 grams; dry deserts,
200 grams.
For such highly productive communities as
estuaries, coral reefs, and sugarcane fields, the
figures may range from 10 to 25 grams per day, for
comparable annual yields of 3600 to 9100 grams.

35
36
Overall, terrestrial ecosystems
Contribute about two-thirds of global NPP and
marine ecosystems about one-third
Figure 54.5
180
120W
60W
0 60E 120E 180
North Pole
60N
30N
Equator
30S
60S
South Pole
37
38
Primary Production in Marine and
Freshwater Ecosystems

Primary Production in Terrestrial and
Wetland Ecosystems

39
Primary Production in Marine and
Freshwater Ecosystems
In marine and freshwater ecosystems
Both light and nutrients are important in
controlling primary production
40
41
1. Light Limitation
The depth of light penetration
Affects plant primary production throughout
the photic zone of an ocean or lake
42
43
2. Nutrient Limitation
More than light, nutrients limit primary
production
Both in different geographic regions of the
ocean and in lakes
44
A limiting nutrient is the element that must be
added
In order to increase production in a particular
ecosystems
Nitrogen and phosphorous
Are typically the nutrients that most often limit
marine production
45
Nutrient enrichment experiments
Confirmed that nitrogen was limiting phytoplankton
growth in an area of the ocean
Gross primary
productivity
EXPERIMENT
Pollution from duck farms concentrated near Moriches Bay adds both nitrogen and
phosphorus to the coastal water off Long Island. Researchers cultured the
phytoplankton Nannochloris atomus with water collected from several bays.
Coast of Long Island, New York.
The numbers on the map indicate
the data collection stations.
Shinnecock
Bay
Moriches Bay
Atlantic Ocean
30
21
19
15
11
5
4
2
46
(a) Phytoplankton biomass and phosphorus concentration
(b) Phytoplankton response to nutrient enrichment
Great
South Bay
Moriches
Bay
Shinnecock
Bay
Starting
algal
density
2 4 5 11 30 15 19 21
30
24
18
12
6
0
Unenriched control
Ammonium enriched
Phosphate enriched
Station number
P
h
y
t
o
p
l
a
n
k
t
o
n

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

c
e
l
l
s

p
e
r

m
L
)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2 4 5 11 30 15 19 21
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
I
n
o
r
g
a
n
i
c

p
h
o
s
p
h
o
r
u
s

(

g

a
t
o
m
s
/
L
)

P
h
y
t
o
p
l
a
n
k
t
o
n

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

c
e
l
l
s
/
m
L
)

Station number
CONCLUSION Since adding phosphorus, which was already in rich supply, had no effect on
Nannochloris growth, whereas adding nitrogen increased algal density dramatically, researchers
concluded that nitrogen was the nutrient limiting phytoplankton growth in this ecosystem.
Phytoplankton
Inorganic
phosphorus
RESULTS
(a) Phytoplankton abundance parallels the abundance of
phosphorus in the water. Nitrogen, however, is immediately taken up by
algae, and no free nitrogen is measured in the coastal waters. (b) The
addition of ammonium (NH
4

) caused heavy phytoplankton growth in bay

water, but the addition of phosphate (PO
4
3
) did not induce algal growth.
47
The addition of large amounts of nutrients to
lakes
Has a wide range of ecological impacts
48
In some areas, sewage effluent and runoff lawn
fertilizers into natural waters (rivers or coasts)
Has caused eutrophication in which increasing in
chemical nutrients typically compounds nitrogen or
phosphorus
Three particularly troubling ecological impacts:
decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition
and dominance, and toxicity effects. Other effects are:
Increased biomass of phytoplankton
Toxic or inedible phytoplankton species
Increases in blooms of gelatinous zooplankton
Decreased biomass of benthic and epiphytic algae
Color, smell, and water treatment problems
Dissolved oxygen depletion
Increased incidences of fish kills
Decreases in perceived aesthetic value of the water body
49
Primary Production in Terrestrial
and Wetland Ecosystems
In terrestrial and wetland ecosystems
climatic factors
Such as temperature and moisture, affect
primary production on a large geographic scale
50
The contrast between wet (wetland) and dry (terrestrial) climates
Can be represented by a measure called actual
evapotranspiration
Run off occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and
excess water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources flows over
the land.
Groundwater recharge a hydrologic process where water
moves downward from surface water to groundwater
Water cycle of the earth's surface,
showing the individual components of
transpiration and evaporation that make
up evapotranspiration. Other closely
related processes shown are runoff and
groundwater recharge.
51
52
53
On a more local scale
A soil nutrient is often the limiting factor in primary
production
EXPERIMENT
Over the summer of 1980, researchers added
phosphorus to some experimental plots in the salt marsh, nitrogen
to other plots, and both phosphorus and nitrogen to others. Some
plots were left unfertilized as controls.
RESULTS
Experimental plots receiving just
phosphorus (P) do not out produce
the unfertilized control plots.
CONCLUSION
L
i
v
e
,

a
b
o
v
e
-
g
r
o
u
n
d

b
i
o
m
a
s
s

(
g

d
r
y

w
t
/
m
2
)

Adding nitrogen (N)
boosts net primary
production.
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
June July August 1980
N P
N only
Control
P only
These nutrient enrichment experiments
confirmed that nitrogen was the nutrient limiting plant growth in
this salt marsh.
54
The production efficiency of an organism
Is the fraction of energy stored in food that is not
used for respiration
Fraction of energy stored in food that will be
efficient for the consumer
Production Efficiency
55
Production Efficiency
When a caterpillar feeds on a plant leaf
Only about one-sixth of the energy in the leaf is
used for secondary production (biomass)
Figure 54.10
Plant material
eaten by caterpillar
Cellular
respiration
Growth (new biomass)
Feces
100 J
33 J
200 J
67 J
56
57
NPP- total amount of matter
produced that is available to
heterotrophs.
58
59
Ecological Pyramids
Trophic
Efficiency
Pyramid of
productivity
Pyramid of
biomass
Pyramid of
numbers
Fig. 4-20 p. 79
60
1. Trophic Efficiency
Trophic efficiency
Is the percentage of production transferred from
one trophic level to the next
Usually ranges from 5% to 20%
only 5% to 20% of primary producer biomass
consumed is converted into new consumer biomass
61
2. Pyramids of Production
This loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain
Can be represented by a pyramid of net production
Figure 54.11
Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers
Primary
consumers
Primary
producers
1,000,000 J of sunlight
10 J
100 J
1,000 J
10,000 J
62
3. Pyramids of Biomass
Shows the relationship between biomass and
trophic level
- by quantifying the amount of biomass present
at each trophic level.
Typical units for a biomass pyramid could be
grams per meter
2
, or calories per meter
2
.
Can be represented in a biomass pyramid
63
Most biomass pyramids
Show a sharp decrease at successively higher trophic
levels
Figure 54.12a
(a) Most biomass pyramids show a sharp decrease in biomass at successively higher
trophic levels, as illustrated by data from a bog at Silver Springs, Florida.
Trophic level
Dry weight
(g/m
2
)
Primary producers
Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers
1.5
11
37
809
64
Certain aquatic ecosystems
Have inverted biomass pyramids
(b) In some aquatic ecosystems, such as the English Channel, small standing crop of
primary producers (phytoplankton) supports a larger standing crop of primary
consumers (zooplankton).
Trophic level
Primary producers (phytoplankton)
Primary consumers (zooplankton)
Dry weight
(g/m
2
)
21
4
Consequently, aquatic biomass pyramids can seemingly be
upside down if net primary productivity does not accumulate
in the ecosystem within primary producers
(i.e., primary producers are eaten as fast as they
grow/reproduce)
65
4. Pyramids of Numbers
A pyramid of numbers
Represents the number of individual organisms in
each trophic level
Figure 54.13
Trophic level Number of
individual organisms
Primary producers
Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers
3
354,904
708,624
5,842,424
66
The dynamics of energy flow through
ecosystems
Have important implications for the human
population
Eating meat
Is a relatively inefficient way of tapping
photosynthetic production
67
Worldwide agriculture could successfully feed
many more people
If humans all fed more efficiently, eating only plant
material
Figure 54.14
Trophic level
Secondary
consumers
Primary
consumers
Primary
producers
68
The Green World Hypothesis
According to the green world hypothesis
Terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant
biomass because they are held in check by a variety
of factors
69
Most terrestrial ecosystems
Have large standing crops despite the large
numbers of herbivores
Figure 54.15
70
The green world hypothesis proposes several
factors that keep herbivores in check
1. Plants have defenses against herbivores
2. Nutrients usually limit herbivores
3. Abiotic factors (temperature, moisture, light)
limit herbivores
4. Intraspecific competition can limit herbivore
numbers
5. Interspecific interactions check herbivore
densities
71
Concept 54.4: Biological and geochemical
processes move nutrients between organic and
inorganic parts of the ecosystem
Life on Earth
Depends on the recycling of essential chemical
elements
Nutrient circuits that cycle matter through an
ecosystem
Involve both biotic and abiotic components and are
often called biogeochemical cycles
72
A General Model of Chemical
Cycling
Gaseous forms of carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and
nitrogen
Occur in the atmosphere and cycle globally
Less mobile elements, including phosphorous,
potassium, and calcium
Cycle on a more local level
73
A general model of nutrient cycling
Includes the main reservoirs of elements and the
processes that transfer elements between reservoirs
Organic
materials
available
as nutrients
Living
organisms,
detritus
Organic
materials
unavailable
as nutrients
Coal, oil,
peat
Inorganic
materials
available
as nutrients
Inorganic
materials
unavailable
as nutrients
Atmosphere,
soil, water
Minerals
in rocks
Formation of
sedimentary rock
Weathering,
erosion
Respiration,
decomposition,
excretion
Burning
of fossil fuels
Fossilization
Reservoir a Reservoir b
Reservoir c Reservoir d
Assimilation,
photosynthesis
Assimilation: the conversion of
nutrient into the fluid or solid
substance of the body, by the
processes of digestion and
absorption
74
All elements
Cycle between organic and inorganic reservoirs
75
Biogeochemical Cycles
Transport
over land
Solar energy
5. Net movement of
water vapor by wind
1b. Precipitation
over ocean
Evaporation
from ocean
1a. Precipitation
over land
2. Percolation
Through soil
3. Runoff and
groundwater
THE WATER CYCLE
4b. Evaporation
From the sea
4a. Evaporation
from land
76
Water cycle
- Water moves in a global cycle
- Driven by solar energy

The carbon cycle
Reflects the reciprocal processes of
photosynthesis (use) and cellular respiration
(return bck)
77
The carbon cycle

78
The carbon cycle
The carbon cycle depends on photosynthesis and respiration.

Carbon also enters the atmosphere when fossil fuels burn and
when volcanoes erupt.

Sediments and rocks hold most of the carbon, followed by the
ocean, then soil, the atmosphere and biomass on land.

Most atmospheric carbon occurs in the form of carbon dioxide
(CO
2
).

Carbon dissolved in the ocean is mainly in the forms of
bicarbonate and carbonate.
79
The carbon cycle
Carbon compounds in detritus (animal wastes, plant
litter, dead organisms) are consumed and decomposed
by detritivores.
Detritivores respiration returns CO
2
to the
atmosphere.

The return of CO
2
to the atmosphere by respiration
closely balances its removal by photosynthesis.

The increased burning of wood and fossil fuels is raising
the level of CO
2
in the atmosphere.
80
Nitrification
N
2
in atmosphere
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrifying
bacteria
Nitrifying
bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing
soil bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in root
nodules of legumes
Decomposers
Ammonification
Assimilation
NH
3
NH
4
+

NO
3

NO
2

THE NITROGEN CYCLE
81
Nitrogen cycle
Earths atm-80% nitrogen, however mostly in the
form of nitrogen gas (N
2
)
N
2
-unavailable to consumers of plants
Four processes participate in nitrogen cycle:
i. Nitrogen fixation
ii. Decay
iii. Nitrification
iv. Denitrification
Nitrogen enters atm through 2 ways:
1. Atm deposition
2. Nitrogen fixation
82
Nitrogen cycle- Atm deposition
5-10% through atm deposition

NH
4
+ (ammonium) and NO
3-
(nitrate), the 2
forms available to plants
-added to soil by dissolving in rain or settling as
dust or particles

Some plants, epiphytic bromeliads
-have aerial roots that can take up NH
4
+ and
NO
3-
directly from moist atm
83
1. Nitrogen Fixation
The ability to fix nitrogen is found only in certain bacteria
and archaea.
Some live in a symbiotic relationship with plants of the
legume family (e.g., soybeans, alfalfa).
Some establish symbiotic relationships with plants other
than legumes (e.g., alders).
Some establish symbiotic relationships with animals, e.g.,
termites and "shipworms" (wood-eating bivalves).
Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live free in the soil.

Although the first stable product of the process is
ammonia, this is quickly incorporated into protein and
other organic nitrogen compounds.
84
2. Decay
The proteins made by plants enter and pass
through food webs just as carbohydrates do.
At each trophic level, their metabolism produces
organic nitrogen compounds that return to the
environment, chiefly in excretions.
The final beneficiaries of these materials are
microorganisms of decay.
They break down the molecules in excretions
and dead organisms into ammonia.

85
3. Nitrification
1. This is accomplished in two steps:

i. Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize ammonia (NH
3
) to nitrites
(NO2).
ii. Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates
(NO3).
These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria.
Through their activities (which supply them with all their energy
needs), nitrogen is made available to the roots of plants.

2. Both soil and the ocean contain archaeal microbes, assigned to the
Crenarchaeota, that convert ammonia to nitrites. They are more
abundant than the nitrifying bacteria and may turn out to play an
important role in the nitrogen cycle.

3. Many legumes, in addition to fixing atmospheric nitrogen, also
perform nitrification converting some of their organic nitrogen to
nitrites and nitrates. These reach the soil when they shed their leaves.

86
Since most soils are acidic:
- NH
3
released to soil, picks up ion (H+)
-form ammonium (NH
4
+
)
- NH
4
+
can be used directly by plants


Nitrogen cycle- Nitrification
87
4. Denitrification
The three processes above remove nitrogen from the
atmosphere and pass it through ecosystems.

Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus
replenished the atmosphere.

Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil
and in aquatic sediments where conditions are anaerobic.
They use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen for the final
electron acceptor in their respiration.

Thus they close the nitrogen cycle.

88
Rain
Plants
2. Consumption
3. Decomposition
Geologic
uplift
7. Weathering
of rocks
Runoff
6. Sedimentation
1. Plant uptake
of PO
4
3

4. Soil
5. Leaching
THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
89
Phosphorus cycle
Dont involve atmosphere!!

Plants absorb phosphorous in the form of PO
4
3-

(phosphate)

- then absorb form organic synthesis

Weathering of rocks-add phosphate to soil

Producers-incorporate phosphorous into biological
molecules
-transferred to consumers in organic form
-added back to soil by excretion of phosphate by animals
and by the action of bacteria and fungi decomposers
90
Phosphorus cycle
Phosphate that reach the ocean
- accumulates in sediment
- incorporated in rocks

Phosphate -recycles among soil, plants and
consumers
91
Most of the nitrogen cycling in natural
ecosystems
Involves local cycles between organisms and soil
or water
The phosphorus cycle
Is relatively localized
92
Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling Rates
Decomposers (detritivores) play a key role
In the general pattern of chemical cycling
Figure 54.18
Consumers
Producers
Nutrients
available
to producers
Abiotic
reservoir
Geologic
processes
Decomposers
93
The rates at which nutrients cycle in different
ecosystems
Are extremely variable, mostly as a result of
differences in rates of decomposition
94
Ecosystem
Services
and
Sustainability
Fig. 4-34 p. 92