MTech NDT

Topic : Non Destructive Testing (NDT)
L&T Heavy Engineering Divison

Hazira
Outline
What is NDT ?
Where is NDT used ?
When is NDT used ?
Types of Discontinuities.
Common NDT methods.
NDT in L&T
Questions & Answers

What is NDT ?
NDT Non Destructive Testing
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the interity of a materia!"
component or structure or
quantitative!y measure
some characteristic of
an o#$ect.i.e. %nspect or
measure without doin harm.
What is NDT ? Contd..
The fie!d of Nondestructive Testin &NDT' is a very
#road" interdiscip!inary fie!d that p!ays a critica! ro!e
in assurin that structura! components and systems
perform their function in a re!ia#!e and cost effective
fashion. NDT technicians and enineers define and
imp!ement tests that !ocate and characteri(e
materia! conditions and f!aws that miht otherwise
cause p!anes to crash" reactors to fai!" trains to
derai!" pipe!ines to #urst" and a variety of !ess visi#!e"
#ut equa!!y trou#!in events.
What is NDT ? Contd..
)ecause NDT a!!ows inspection without interferin
with a product*s fina! use" it provides an e+ce!!ent
#a!ance #etween qua!ity contro! and cost,
effectiveness. Techno!oy that is used in NDT is
simi!ar to those used in the medica! industry- yet"
typica!!y non!ivin o#$ects are the su#$ects of the
inspections.
Where is NDT use! ?
NDT is used where we need to ensure the
servicea#i!ity of a specimen. That may #e the use of a
raw materia! such as a castin" the use of fa#rication
such as we!din" or the use of a finished part or
comp!eted system. We app!y NDT where we cannot
afford the cost of a fai!ure of the specimen #ecause
fai!ure wou!d #e financia!!y unaccepta#!e or cause
harm to us.
When is NDT use! ?
NDT is used #oth #efore and after production of raw
materia!s such as inots and castins" #efore and
after fa#rication" and #efore and after assem#!y of
parts into a comp!eted system. .sin NDT /#efore/
prevents a su#standard materia! or part from
wastin time and increasin scrap production. The
/when/ is riht if profit" qua!ity" and safety are the
resu!t of usin NDT.

Discontinuities
Definition 0 The chane in the eometry or
composition of an o#$ect" it may #e intentiona! or
unintentiona!.
1uch chanes inherent!y affect the physica!
properties of the o#$ect and may in turn have an
effect on the o#$ects a#i!ity to fu!fi!! its intended use
or service !ife.
Every !iscontinuity is not a !e"ect #ut every
!e"ect is a !iscontinuity$
Discontinuities %ont!&
The definition of defects chanes with the type of
component" its construction" its materia!s and the
specifications or codes in force.
%t is possi#!e that discontinuity in one o#$ect may #e
defect in another.Detection of discontinuities is
!are!y dependent on the discontinuity2s physica!
characteristics.

Whi!e performin NDT it is a!so important to consider
how the materia! is produced" what manufacturin
process are used to form the finished product and
what discontinuities are typica!!y initiated #y the
process operations. Discontinuity is cateori(ed #y
the stae of manufacturin or use in which it
initiates.
Discontinuity is cateori(ed in four staes
%nherent discontinuities.
3rimary processin discontinuities.
1econdary processin discontinuities.
1ervice induced discontinuities.

'nherent !iscontinuities :
When ferromanetic materia!s are produced" mo!ten
meta! so!idifies into inot form producin what is
4nown as inherent discontinuities.
1uch discontinuities then can #e ro!!ed" fored and
section a!on with the materia! in its su#sequent
processin operations.
'nherent Discontinuities
%ol! shut
Location 0 1urface or 1u#surface
Cause 0 The meetin of two streams of !iquid meta!
that do not fuse toether.

(orosity
Cause 0 5ntrapped ases durin so!idification of
meta!s

'nclusions
Cause 0 Contaminant introduced durin the castin
process

Hot tears
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 6estraints from the core or mo!d durin the
coo!in process.
)egregation
Location 0 1urface or su#surface
Cause 0 Loca!i(ed differences in materia!
composition.

(ri*ary (rocessing !iscontinuities :
Discontinuities those oriinate durin hot or co!d
formin are said to #e primary processin
discontinuities. The processin of a wrouht product
#y ro!!in" forin" castin or drawin may introduce
specific discontinuities into the product and inherent
discontinuity that were at one time undetecta#!e or
insinificant may propaate and #ecome detrimenta!
(ri*ary (rocessing Discontinuities (Wel!)
(orosity
Cause 0 7apori(ed constituents in the mo!ten we!d
meta! are entrapped durin so!idification.

%luster (orosity
Cause 0 7apori(ed constituents in the mo!ten we!d
meta! are entrapped durin so!idification.

)lag 'nclusion
Location 0 1u#surface
Cause 0 %mproper c!eanin of previous we!d pass
and mi+in of o+ides on the #ase meta! surface into
the we!d poo!

Lac+ o" (enetration

Cause 0 %nadequate penetration of the we!d $oint root
#y the we!d meta!.

Lac+ o" ,usion

Location 0 1u#surface
Cause 0 8ai!ure of fi!!er meta! to coa!ese with the
#ase meta!.

)uc+ -ac+
Cause 0 where the we!d meta! has contracted as it
coo!s and has #een drawn up into the root of the
we!d.

'nternal .n!ercut
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 9ver si(ed we!d poo! &re!ated to e+cessive
amperae" trave! speed and e!ectrode si(e.'

E/ternal .n!ercut
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 9ver si(ed we!d poo! &re!ated to e+cessive
amperae" trave! speed and e!ectrode si(e.'

O""set or *is*atch
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 where two pieces #ein we!ded toether are
not proper!y a!ined.

%ol! 0 Hot %rac+

Location 0 1urface or 1u#surface.
Cause 0 A com#ination of atomic hydroen"
hardena#!e materia! and hih residua! stress.

'na!e1uate 2el! rein"orce*ent

Location 0 1urface.

E/cess 2el! rein"orce*ent

Location 0 1urface.

Tungsten 'nclusion
Location 0 1u#surface.
Cause 0 :o!ten we!d poo! or fi!!er meta! comes in
contact with the tip of tunsten e!ectrode.

-urn Through
Location 0 1urface.
Cause 0 Too much heat causes e+cessive we!d
meta! to penetrate the we!d (one.

)econ!ary processing Discontinuities
3rin!ing %rac+s
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 Loca!i(ed overheatin of the materia! due to
improper rindin procedures.
Heat Treating %rac+s

Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 .neven heatin and coo!in that produces
stresses e+ceedin the tensi!e strenth of the
materia!.

)econ!ary processing Discontinuities
4uench %rac+s
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 1udden coo!in from e!evated temperature
(ic+ling %rac+s
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 6esidua! stress #ein re!ieved

)ervice 'n!uce! Discontinuities
,atigue
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 Cyc!ica!!y app!ied stress #e!ow the u!timate
tensi!e strenth.
%reep
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 :ateria! su#$ected to e!evated temperatures
and stress #e!ow the yie!d strenth.

)ervice 'n!uce! Discontinuities
)tress %orrosion %rac+ing

Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 Com#ined effect of static tensi!e !oad and
corrosive environment.
Hy!rogen %rac+ing
Location 0 1urface
Cause 0 Com#ined effect of app!ied tensi!e or
residua! stress and hydroen enriched environment.

%o**on NDT 5etho!s
The most common NDT methods used are as
fo!!ows 0
.!trasonic Testin.
:anetic 3artic!e Testin.
3enetrant Testin.
6adioraphy Testin.
5ddy Current Testin.

;ih frequency sound waves are introduced into a
materia! and they are ref!ected #ac4 from surfaces or
f!aws.
6ef!ected sound enery is disp!ayed versus time" and
inspector can visua!i(e a cross section of the specimen
showin the depth of features that ref!ect sound.
"
p!ate
crac4
< = > ? @ A<
initia!
pu!se
crac4
echo
#ac4 surface
echo
9sci!!oscope" or f!aw
detector screen
.ltrasonic Testing
"
.ltrasonic Testing
A typica! .T inspection system consists of severa!
functiona! units" such as the pu!sarBreceiver"
transducer" and disp!ay devices. A pu!sarBreceiver is
an e!ectronic device that can produce hih vo!tae
e!ectrica! pu!se. Driven #y the pu!sar" the transducer
enerates hih frequency u!trasonic enery. The
sound enery is introduced and propaates throuh
the materia!s in the form of waves. When there is a
discontinuity &such as a crac4' in the wave path" part
of the enery wi!! #e ref!ected #ac4 from the f!aw
surface.
"
.ltrasonic Testing
The ref!ected wave sina! is transformed into
e!ectrica! sina! #y the transducer and is disp!ayed
on a screen. The ref!ected sina! strenth is
disp!ayed versus the time from sina! eneration to
when a echo was received. 1ina! trave! time can
#e direct!y re!ated to the distance that the sina!
trave!ed. 8rom the sina!" information a#out the
ref!ector !ocation" si(e" orientation and other
features can sometimes #e ained.
.ltrasonic Testing

Types O" )oun! Waves & (ropagation
%n so!ids" mo!ecu!es can support vi#rations in other
directions so the num#er of different types &modes'
of sound waves are possi#!e. 9n the #asis of partic!e
disp!acement in the medium u!trasonic waves are
c!assified as !onitudina! waves " transverse waves "
surface waves and !am# waves . 7e!ocity remains
the same in the iven medium #ut differs when the
method of vi#ration chanes.
There are four types of sound waves 0
Lonitudina! , 3ara!!e! to wave direction
Transverse , 3erpendicu!ar to wave direction
1urface &6ay!eih' , 5!!iptica! or#it symmetrica! mode
3!ate Wave &Lam#' , Component perpendicu!ar to

surface &e+tensiona! wave'
Longitu!inal or %o*pressional Wave

These waves most!y used in the inspection of
materia!s.The ve!ocity of !onitudina! waves is a#out
?<<< mBsec in stee!"AC<< mBsec in water and DD<
mBsec in air.
Lonitudina! waves have partic!e vi#ration in a #ac4
and forth motion in the direction of wave
propaation. These waves are readi!y propaated in
the !iquids"ases and e!astic so!ids.
Transverse or )hear Wave

These wave have partic!e vi#ration perpendicu!ar to
the direction of wave motion.These waves wi!! not
trave! throuh !iquid" ases #ecause force of
attraction #etween mo!ecu!es are too sma!! . the
ve!ocity of these waves is a#out C<E the !onitudina!
waves for the same medium.
)ur"ace or 6eyleigh Wave

These waves trave! a!on the f!at or curved surface
of re!ative!y thic4 so!id parts.The ve!ocity of these
waves are F<E of the transverse waves in the same
materia!. 1urface waves are usefu! for detectin
surface crac4s.7i#ration of partic!e fo!!ow an e!!iptica!
path.
(late or La*# Wave

These waves a!so another type of u!trasonic waves
used to detect surface defect and penetrates on!y
upto ha!f of wave !enth.These waves propaate in
p!ate on!y.
Trans!ucer or (ro#e in .T
The conversion of e!ectrica! pu!ses to mechanica!
vi#rations and the conversion of returned
mechanica! vi#rations #ac4 into e!ectrica! enery is
the #asis for u!trasonic testin. The active e!ement is
the heart of the transducer as it converts the
e!ectrica! enery to acoustic enery" and vice versa.
Transducers or pro#es are very important too! in the
system. They act throuh coup!ant.The sensitivity of
a transducer is defined as its a#i!ity to detect
sma!!est discontinuities and it is measured #y the
response of ref!ection from artificia! discontinuity in
reference #!oc4.Transducers are c!assified into
roups accordin to the app!ication.
8our #asic types of transducers0
G

G

'**ersion
(ro#e
Nor*al
(ro#e
T06 (ro#e
7ngle (ro#e
%ouplant
A coup!ant is a materia! &usua!!y !iquid' that
faci!itates the transmission of u!trasonic enery from
the transducer into the test specimen. Coup!ant is
enera!!y necessary #ecause the acoustic
impedance mismatch #etween air and so!ids" such
as the test specimen" is !are and" therefore" near!y
a!! of the enery is ref!ected and very !itt!e is
transmitted into the test materia!$

%ouplant
The coup!ant disp!aces the air and ma4es it possi#!e
to et more sound enery into the test specimen so
that a usa#!e u!trasonic sina! can #e o#tained. %n
contact u!trasonic testin a thin fi!m of oi!" !ycerin or
water is enera!!y used and in immersion testin
water is #etween the transducer and the test
surface.

(ro#e (lace*ent "or several 2el!
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
con"iguration
5ain uses o" .T
.sed to !ocate surface and su#surface defects in
many materia!s inc!udin meta!s" p!astics" and wood.
.!trasonic inspection is a!so used to measure the
thic4ness of materia!s and otherwise characteri(e
properties of materia! #ased on sound ve!ocity and
attenuation measurements.
7!vantages o" .T
%t is sensitive to #oth surface and su#surface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for f!aw detection or measurement is

superior to other NDT methods.
9n!y sin!e,sided access is needed when the pu!se,echo

technique is used.
%t is hih accuracy in determinin ref!ector position and

estimatin si(e and shape.
:inima! part preparation required.
5!ectronic equipment provides instantaneous resu!ts.
Detai!ed imaes can #e produced with automated systems.
%t has other uses such as thic4ness measurements" in addition

to f!aw detection.
Disa!vantages o" .T
1urface must #e accessi#!e to transmit u!trasound.
14i!! and trainin is more e+tensive than with some other methods.
%t norma!!y requires a coup!in medium to promote transfer of sound

enery into test specimen.
:ateria!s that are rouh" irreu!ar in shape" very sma!!" e+ceptiona!!y

thin or not homoeneous are difficu!t to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse rained materia!s are difficu!t to inspect
due to !ow sound transmission and hih sina! noise.
Linear defects oriented para!!e! to the sound #eam may o

undetected.
6eference standards are required for #oth equipment ca!i#ration" and

characteri(ation of f!aws.
6a!iography Testing
6T 8 Overvie2
9 (rinciples
9 6a!iographic 4uality
9 :ray ;s 3a**a ray 6a!iography
9 7!vantages & li*itations o" 6T
6a!iation
9 (roperties
3eneration o" :rays an! 3a**a rays
Ter*inologies li+e Hal" Li"e< H;T< %urie etc$<
6a!iography Testing
6a!iographic ,il*
9 "il* types an! spee!
9 '*age "or*ation
9 ,il* processing 8 Developing< "i/ing < 2ashing<!rying
6a!iographic 4uality
9 Optical Density
9 6a!iographic %ontrast
9 De"inition
9 )ensitivity 8 *easuring sensitivity< speci"ic ter*s$
6a!iography Testing
6a!iographic techni1ues
9 )W)' : )ource outsi!e< ,il* insi!e
9 )W)' : )ource insi!e < ,il* outsi!e
9 DW)'
9 DWD'
9 )an!2ich techni1ue$
6e"erences
9 7)5E )ec$; 7rt$= & ==
9 6a!iography & 6a!iation Testing 8 7)NT Han! #oo+
9 )ensito*etric properties o" :ray "il*s 8 East*an +o!a+
9 6a!iography in *o!ern in!ustry 8 East*an +o!a+
9 volu*e >? 8 7*erican society "or *etals$
The radiation used in radioraphy testin is a hiher
enery &shorter wave!enth' version of the
e!ectromanetic waves that we
see as visi#!e !iht. The radiation can come from an
H,ray enerator or a radioactive source.
6a!iography Testing
High Electrical (otential
Electrons
@
:ray 3enerator or 6a!ioactive )ource %reates
6a!iation
E/posure 6ecor!ing Device
6a!iation
(enetrate
the
)a*ple
6a!iography Testing
6a!iography Testing
6T invo!ves the use of penetratin amma, or H,
radiation to e+amine materia!*s and product*s defects
and interna! features. An H,ray machine or
radioactive isotope is used as a source of radiation.
6adiation is directed throuh a part and onto fi!m or
other media. The resu!tin shadowraph shows the
interna! features and soundness of the part. :ateria!
thic4ness and density chanes are indicated as
!ihter or dar4er areas on the fi!m.
Top vie2 o" !evelope! "il*
X-ray film
H,rays are used to produce
imaes of o#$ects usin fi!m or
other detector that is sensitive
to radiation. The test o#$ect is
p!aced #etween the radiation
source and detector. The
thic4ness and the density of
the materia! that H,rays must
penetrate affects the amount
of radiation reachin the
detector.
6a!iography Testing
6a!iography Testing
This variation in radiation produces an imae on the
detector that often shows interna! features of the test
o#$ect.The part is p!aced #etween the radiation
source and a piece of fi!m. The part wi!! stop some
of the radiation. Thic4er and more dense area wi!!
stop more of the radiation.
5ain .ses o" 6T
.sed to inspect a!most any materia! for surface and
su#surface defects. H,rays can a!so #e used to
!ocates and measures interna! features" confirm the
!ocation of hidden parts in an assem#!y.
A ma$or advantae of radioraphic testin is that a
permanent record is produced ie." the radioraph.
A ma$or !imitation of radioraphy is radiation is
ha(ardous.
7!vantages o" 6T
Can #e used to inspect virtua!!y a!! materia!s.
Detects surface and su#surface defects.
A#i!ity to inspect comp!e+ shapes and mu!ti,!ayered

structures without disassem#!y.
:inimum part preparation is required.

Disa!vantages o" 6T
5+tensive operator trainin and s4i!! required.
Access to #oth sides of the structure is usua!!y

required.
9rientation of the radiation #eam to non,vo!umetric

defects is critica!.
8ie!d inspection of thic4 section can #e time

consumin.
6e!ative!y e+pensive equipment investment is

required.
3ossi#!e radiation ha(ard for personne!.

6a!iography Testing
6a!iation:
Either electro*agnetic energy ( heat< visi#le light< '6< .;< :& ga**a rays)
or %orpuscular energy ( electrons< alpha< #eta<neutrons )
'onising ra!iation causes the charging o" particles ie$< the "or*ation o"
ions< in a *e!iu* such as air or "il*$
(roperties o" : an! ga**a rays:
They penetrate the *atter an! ionize the *atter$
They *ove in straight lines
They travel at the see! o" light$
They *ay #e scattere!
They are invisi#le an! har*"ul to #iological tissues an! #loo!$
They *ay #e re"racte! < !i""racte! an! polarize!$

6a!iography Testing
3eneration o" ga**a rays:
They are e*itte! "ro* arti"icial
ra!ioactive 'sotopes such as %o#altAB<
'ri!iu*>C=< )eleniu*?D etc$
The activity o" ra!ioactive isotope is
e/presse! in %uries or #ec1uerels$
> %urieE F$?/>BG >B$
Hal"li"e: The ti*e perio! a"ter 2hich the
initial intensity o" isotope co*es to hal"
o" its initial value$
6a!iography tesing
6adioraphic fi!m0
:ade,up of seven !ayers0 a centra! #ase" three
coatins on either side consistin of a su##in
!ayer"emu!sion and supercoat.
5mu!sion0 si!ver ha!ide crysta!s, si!ver #romide.
Dependin on the si(e of the crysta!s" fi!m speed
and sensitivity of the imae varies.
8i!m types0 u!tra fine rain" 8ine rain" :edium
rain" Coarse rain.
%ntensifyin screens0 Lead screens.
6a!iography Testing
%mae formation0
The portions of radioraphic fi!m which receive sufficient

quantities of radiation undero minute chanes.Thus a
hidden imae a!so ca!!ed !atent imae is formed.
At this stae" the si!ver ha!ide crysta!s which have a#sor#ed

a sufficient quantity of radiaiton are partia!!y converted into
meta!!ic si!ver.
The affected crysta!s are then amp!ified #y the deve!oper

which converts the crysta!s into meta!!ic si!ver.
The radioraph attains its fina! appearance #y fi+ation.The

fi+er removes the une+posed and therefore undeve!oped
crysta!s.
6a!iography Testing
6adioraphic qua!ity0
Density, Deree of #!ac4ness
Contrast, The deree of difference #etween density
fie!ds on a radioraph.
Definition, Deree of sharpness at the #oundaries of
density fie!ds.
1ensitivity, overa!! radioraphic qua!ity.
NonDestructive Testing 5etho! & 7pplication

5aterial
,la2 type
)ur"ac
e
Crac4s
&
8!aws
1u#,
1urface
Crac4s
&
8!aws
%nterna!
8!aws
&
Disconti
nuities

Lac4 of
#ond
9f !oc4
of
8usion
Non,
:eta!!ic
%nc!usions
,
1!a"
porosity

:ateria!
Qua!ity

Laminations"
Thic4ness
:easureme
nt

8errous
Components
&
8inished
:.T.
..T.
5.T.
6.T.
..T.
..T.
:.T.
..T.

..T.
Non,ferrous
Components
8inished
3.T.
..T.
5.T.
6.T.
..T.

..T.
5.T.

..T.
Aircraft
8errous
Components
6.T.
:.T.
5.T.
:.T.
..T.
6.T.
..T.
..T.
:.T.
..T.

..T.
Aircraft
Non,8errous
Components
6.T.
3.T.
5.T.
6.T.
..T.
6.T.
..T.
..T. 3.T.

..T.

5aterial
,la2 type
)ur"ac
e
Crac4s
&
8!aws
1u#,
1urfac
e
Crac4
s &
8!aws
%nterna!
8!aws
&
Discont
inuities

Lac4 of
#ond
9f !oc4
of
8usion
Non,:eta!!ic
%nc!usions,
1!a"
porosity

:ateria
!
Qua!ity

Laminations
"
Thic4ness
:easureme
nt

8errous
,orgings &
1tampins
:.T.

:.T.
..T.

6.T.
..T.

6.T.
..T.

..T.

8errous raw
:ateria!s &
6o!!ed
products
:.T.
:.T.
..T.
..T.

:.T.
..T.

..T.
8errous tu#e
&
pipe
:.T.

5.T.
:.T.
..T.
..T. ..T.
:.T.
..T.

..T.

5aterial
,la2 type

1urface
Crac4s
&
8!aws
1u#,
1urfa
ce
Crac4
s &
8!aws
%nterna!
8!aws
&
Discont
inuities

Lac4
of
#ond
9r
!ac4 of
8usio
n
Non,
:eta!!ic
%nc!usions,
1!a"
porosity

:ateria!
Qua!ity

Laminations
"
Thic4ness
:easureme
nt

8errous
we!ds
:.T.
..T.
3.T.
..T.
6.T.
..T.
6.T.
..T.
6.T.
..T.

..T.
1tee!
castins
:.T.
:.T.
..T.
6.T.
..T.

6.T.
..T.

..T.
%ron castins :.T.
..T.
5.T.
..T.

6.T.
..T.
..T. ..T.
Non,8errous
Components
&
:ateria!s
3.T.
5.T.

6.T.
..T.
..T.
3.T.
..T.

..T.
NDT ,acility at L&T Hazira
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MTech NDT

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Topic : Non Destructive Testing (NDT)

L&T Heavy Engineering Divison

Where is NDT used ?

When is NDT used ?

Common NDT methods.

Questions & Answers

3rimary processin discontinuities.

1econdary processin discontinuities.

1ervice induced discontinuities.

Lac+ o" (enetration

Lac+ o" ,usion

%ol! 0 Hot %rac+

'na!e1uate 2el! rein"orce*ent

E/cess 2el! rein"orce*ent

Heat Treating %rac+s

)tress %orrosion %rac+ing

:anetic 3artic!e Testin.

5ddy Current Testin.

Lonitudina! , 3ara!!e! to wave direction

Transverse , 3erpendicu!ar to wave direction

1urface &6ay!eih' , 5!!iptica! or#it symmetrica! mode

3!ate Wave &Lam#' , Component perpendicu!ar to

Longitu!inal or %o*pressional Wave

Transverse or )hear Wave

)ur"ace or 6eyleigh Wave

(late or La*# Wave

%t is sensitive to #oth surface and su#surface discontinuities.

The depth of penetration for f!aw detection or measurement is

9n!y sin!e,sided access is needed when the pu!se,echo

%t is hih accuracy in determinin ref!ector position and

:inima! part preparation required.

5!ectronic equipment provides instantaneous resu!ts.

Detai!ed imaes can #e produced with automated systems.

%t has other uses such as thic4ness measurements" in addition

1urface must #e accessi#!e to transmit u!trasound.

%t norma!!y requires a coup!in medium to promote transfer of sound

:ateria!s that are rouh" irreu!ar in shape" very sma!!" e+ceptiona!!y

Linear defects oriented para!!e! to the sound #eam may o

6eference standards are required for #oth equipment ca!i#ration" and

Can #e used to inspect virtua!!y a!! materia!s.

Detects surface and su#surface defects.

A#i!ity to inspect comp!e+ shapes and mu!ti,!ayered

:inimum part preparation is required.

5+tensive operator trainin and s4i!! required.

Access to #oth sides of the structure is usua!!y

9rientation of the radiation #eam to non,vo!umetric

8ie!d inspection of thic4 section can #e time

6e!ative!y e+pensive equipment investment is

3ossi#!e radiation ha(ard for personne!.

They penetrate the *atter an! ionize the *atter$

They *ove in straight lines

They travel at the see! o" light$

They *ay #e scattere!

They are invisi#le an! har*"ul to #iological tissues an! #loo!$

They *ay #e re"racte! < !i""racte! an! polarize!$

The portions of radioraphic fi!m which receive sufficient

At this stae" the si!ver ha!ide crysta!s which have a#sor#ed

The affected crysta!s are then amp!ified #y the deve!oper

The radioraph attains its fina! appearance #y fi+ation.The

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They penetrate the atter an! ionize the atter$