Technician License Course

Chapter 4
Propagation and Antennas
Radio Wave Propagation:
Getting from Point A to Point B
Radio waves propagate by many
mechanisms.
The science of wave propagation has many
facets.
We will discuss three basic ways:
Line of sight
Ground wave
Sky wave
Line-of-Sight
If a source of radio energy can been seen
by the receiver, then the radio energy will
travel in a straight line from transmitter to
receiver.
There is some attenuation of the signal as the
radio wave travels
This is the primary propagation mode for
VHF and UHF signals.
Ground Wave
Some radio frequency ranges (lower HF
frequencies) will hug the earths surface as
they travel
These waves will travel beyond the range of
line-of-sight
A few hundred miles
Radio Wave Diffraction
Radio waves can be
diffracted around a
discontinuity like light.
This can allow
communication to a
station that should be
hidden
VHF and UHF Propagation
VHF & UHF propagation is principally line of sight.
Range is slightly better than visual line of sight.
because they are refracted along the curvature of the earth making the
earth appear less curved to the radio waves.
UHF signals may work better inside buildings because of the shorter
wavelength makes it easier for the signal to escape holes like windows
Buildings may block line of sight, but reflections may help get past
obstructions.
Reflections from a transmitter that is moving cause multi-path which results
in rapid fading of signal known as picket fencing.
This multipath can also make your signal much stronger or weaker b
moving a few feet.
Can cause high error rates on digital signals

Sunspot Cycle
The level of ionization depends on the
radiation intensity of the Sun.
Radiation from the Sun is connected to the
number of sunspots on the Suns surface.
High number of sunspots, high ionizing
radiation emitted from the Sun.
Sunspot activity follows an 11-year cycle.
Ionosphere
Radiation from the Sun
momentarily will strip electrons
away from the parent atom in the
upper reaches of the atmosphere.
Creates ions
The region where ionization occurs
is called the ionosphere.
The Ionosphere An RF Mirror
The ionized layers of the atmosphere
actually act as an RF mirror that reflect
certain frequencies back to earth.
Sky-wave propagation is responsible for
most long-range, over the horizon
communication.
Reflection depends on frequency and angle
of incidence.
Night best for low frequencies (160m 30m)
Day best for high frequencies (20m 10m)
Levels of the Ionosphere
Density of the atmosphere affects:
The intensity of the radiation
that can penetrate to that
level.
The amount of ionization that
occurs.
How quickly the electrons
recombine with the nucleus.
F layer is primary means of long
range communication ~2500 mile
per hop
E layer (sporotic E) useful on VHF
about 1200 miles /hop
Mostly 10m, 6m, 2m
Often very strong
Special Propagation Modes
Auroral reflection
Aim antenna at active aurora
Reflected signals fluctuate rapidly andare often
distorted
Tropospheric Scatter or Ducting
Often associated with temperature inversion.
VHF & UHF propagation to about 300 miles
Meteor Scatter
Reflection off ionization trail of meteor
Best on 6m useful on 2m & up to 70cm
Quiz Time
Chapter 4.1
Chapter 4.2 Key
T3A01 A B C D
T3A02 A B C D
T3A06 A B C D
T3A08 A B C D
T3A10 A B C D
T3A11 A B C D
T3C01 A B C D
T3C02 A B C D
T3C03 A B C D

T3C04 A B C D
T3C05 A B C D
T3C06 A B C D
T3C07 A B C D
T3C08 A B C D
T3C09 A B C D
T3C10 A B C D
T3C11 A B C D

The Antenna System
Antenna: Facilitates the sending of your
signal to some distant station.
Back to the falling magnet
Feed line: Connects your station to the
antenna.
Test and matching equipment: Allows you
to monitor antenna performance.
The Antenna (Some Vocabulary)
Element: The conducting part or parts of an
antenna designed to radiate or receive
radio waves.
Driven element: The element supplied
directly with power from the transmitter
Feed point: Where the transmitted energy
enters the antenna.

The Antenna (Some Vocabulary)
Polarization: The direction of the electric
field relative to the surface of the earth.
Same as the physical direction
Vertical
Horizontal
Circular

The Antenna (Some Vocabulary)
Omni-directional radiates in all directions.
Directional beam focuses radiation in
specific directions.
Gain apparent increase in power in a
particular direction because energy is
focused in that direction.
Measured in decibels (dB)

Polarization Effects
For VHF & UHF signals on direct line of sight
polarization must match or the signals will be
much weaker.
FM repeaters use vertical polarization because it is
much easier to make vertical mobile antennas.
Most weak signal work uses horizontal because
the horizontal wave tends to travel a bit further
over the horizon.
When reflected by the ionosphere the
polarization of the wave is randomized.
Decibels
dB = 10*log(ratio) for Power
dB = 20*log (ratio) for voltage or current
10 dB is 10 tines the power
3dB is twice the power
Antenna Radiation Patterns
Radiation patterns are
a way of visualizing
antenna performance.
The further the line is
away from the center
of the graph, the
stronger the signal at
that point.
Antenna versus Feed Line
For efficient transfer of energy from the
transmitter to the feed line and from the
feed line to the antenna, the various
impedances need to match.
When there is mismatch of impedances,
things may still work, but not as effectively
as they could.
Feed Line types
The purpose of the feed line is to get
energy from your station to the antenna.
Basic feed line types.
Coaxial cable (coax).
Open-wire or ladder line.
Each has a characteristic impedance, each
has its unique application.
Coax
Most common feed
line.
Easy to use.
Matches impedance
of modern radio
equipment (50 ohms).
Some loss of signal
depending on coax
quality (cost).
Coax Feed Lines
RG-174
Small lossy use only for short runs
RG-58
OK for HF low power(100w) to ~50 feet
RG-8 RG-213
Good for HF to ~200ft & 1500W
Hardline
Low loss good for VHF & UHF long Runs
Coax Connectors
SO-239/PL-259
AKA UHF
Used for HF
N
Matched Z
Good for UHF
BNC
SMA
Open-Wire/Ladder Line
Not common today except in
special applications.
Difficult to use.
Need an antenna tuner to make
impedance match but this allows
a lot of flexibility.
Theoretically has very low loss.
Antenna Impedance
Antennas have a characteristic impedance.
Expressed in ohms common value 50 ohms.
Depends on:
Antenna design
Height above the ground
Distance from surrounding obstacles
Frequency of operation
A million other factors
Impedance AC Resistance
A quick review of a previous concept:
impedance.
Antennas include characteristics of capacitors,
inductors and resistors
The combined response of these
component parts to alternating currents
(radio waves) is called Impedance.
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
If the antenna and feed line impedances
are not perfectly matched, some RF energy
is not radiated into space and is returned
(reflected) back to the source.
Something has to happen to this reflected
energy generally converted into heat or
unwanted radio energy (bad).

The Dipole
Most basic antenna.
Two conductive, equal length parts.
Feed line connected in the middle.
Total length is wavelength ( l ).

Length (in feet) = 468 / Frequency (in MHz).


The Dipole
The Ground-Plane
Simply a dipole that is oriented perpendicular to
the Earths surface (vertical) .
One half of the dipole is replaced by the ground-
plane.
Earth
Car roof or trunk lid or other metal surface.
Radial wires.
Length (in feet) = 234 / Frequency (in MHz).
The Ground-Plane
Loop Antennas Variations
Quad
Delta
Horizontal
Directional (Beam) Antennas
Beam antennas focus or direct RF energy in
a desired direction.
Gain
An apparent increase in power in the desired
direction (both transmit and receive).
Yagi (rod-like elements TV antennas).
Quad (square shape, wire loop elements).
Directional (Beam) Antennas
Directional (Beam) Antennas
All beam antennas have parts called
elements.
Driven element is connected to the radio by
the feed line.
Reflector element is on the back side.
Director element is on the front side toward
the desired direction.
Feed Line Devices
Balun
Duplexer
Antenna switch
SWR meter
Antenna analyzer
Antenna tuner
Nothing is Perfect
Although the goal is to get 100% of your radio
energy radiated into space, that is virtually
impossible.
What is an acceptable level of reflected power or
SWR?
1:1 SWR is perfect.
2:1 SWR should be the max you should accept (as a general rule).
Modern radios will start lowering transmitter output power
automatically when SWR is above 2:1.
3:1 is when you need to do something to reduce SWR.
Care of Feedlines
Water penetration causes coax to get lossy
Seal Connectors against Moisture.
Look for cracks in jacket
Use UV resistant Coax
Air core coax is very low loss but easily
contaminated by water.
Soldering
Antenna construction is often the first
Soldering done by hams.
Use ONLY Rosen core solder!
Use enough heat to get good flow of the
solder
The result should have bright shiny surface.
A dull or grainy surface indicates a cold solder
joint.
Test and Matching Equipment
Proper impedance matching is important
enough to deserve some simple test
equipment as you develop your station
repertoire.
Basic test equipment: SWR meter.
Matching equipment: Antenna tuner.
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
If the antenna and feed line impedances
are not perfectly matched, some RF energy
is not radiated into space and is returned
(reflected) back to the source.
Something has to happen to this reflected
energy generally converted into heat or
unwanted radio energy (bad).

Antenna Tuner
One way to make antenna matching
adjustments is to use an antenna tuner.
Antenna tuners are impedance
transformers (they actually do not tune the
antenna).
When used appropriately they are effective.
When used inappropriately all they do is make
a bad antenna look good to the
transmitterthe antenna is still bad.
How to use an Antenna Tuner
Monitor the SWR meter.
Make adjustments on the tuner
until the minimum SWR is
achieved.
The impedance of the
antenna is transformed to
more closely match the
impedance of the
transmitter.
SWR Meter
The SWR meter is inserted in the feed line and
indicates the mismatch that exists at that point.
You make adjustments to the antenna to minimize
the reflected energy (minimum SWR).
Antenna Supports
Trees.
Towers or masts.
Covenants and
antenna restrictions
must be considered.
Quiz Time
Chapter 4.2 & 4.3 & 4.4
Chapter 4.2 Key
T3A04 A B C D
T3A07 A B C D
T3A09 A B C D
T3B03 A B C D
T5B09 A B C D

T5B10 A B C D
T5B11 A B C D
T5C07 A B C D
T9A02 A B C D
T9A11 A B C D

Chapter 4.3 Key
T6D11 A B C D
T7C03 A B C D
T7C04 A B C D
T7C05 A B C D
T7C06 A B C D
T7C07 A B C D

T9B01 A B C D
T9B02 A B C D
T9B03 A B C D
T9B05 A B C D
T9B09 A B C D
T9B11 A B C D

Chapter 4.4 Key
T3A03 A B C D
T3A05 A B C D
T7C02 A B C D
T7C08 A B C D
T7C09 A B C D
T7C10 A B C D
T7C11 A B C D
T7D08 A B C D
T7D09 A B C D
T9A01 A B C D
T9A03 A B C D
T9A04 A B C D

T9A05 A B C D
T9A06 A B C D
T9A07 A B C D
T9A08 A B C D
T9A09 A B C D
T9A10 A B C D
T9B04 A B C D
T9B06 A B C D
T9B07 A B C D
T9B08 A B C D
T9B10 A B C D