Ch-7 (Statistical Process Control)

7-1 Excel Books Total Quality Management Text and Cases G Nagalingappa, Manjunath V S
Copyright 2010, G Nagalingappa, Manjunath V S

Statistical Process Control
CH-7
Chapter
7
Statistical Process
Control
CH-7
Introduction
Statistical process control (SPC) involves using statistical techniques to
measure and analyze the variation in processes.
SPC is used to monitor the consistency of processes used to
manufacture a product as designed.
There are seven basic statistical tools which are very widely used for
identifying and solving quality-related problems.
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Seven Statistical Tools of Quality
1. Pareto chart
2. Process flow diagrams
3. Cause-effect diagrams
4. Check sheets
5. Histograms
6. Control chart
7. Scatter diagrams
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Pareto Diagram
Purpose
The purpose of the
Pareto chart is to
prioritize problems.
500
400
300
200
100
0
Dollars Percent
100
80
Salaries Equipment Transport Phone/Fax Suppliers
Charges, First Quarter
Pareto Chart
A Typical Pareto Diagram
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A Pareto chart is a series of vertical bars lined
up in a descending order form high to low to
reflect frequency, importance, or impact.
Pareto charts quickly draw everyones
attention to the most important factor-
providing an at-a-glance snapshot of priorities.
It is graphical overview of process problems in
making order of the most frequent, down to the
least frequent, in descending order from left to
right.
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When to use Pareto chart
Is used when the process you are investigating
products data that are broken down into
categories and can count the number of times
each category occurs.
Pareto chart can be helpful, early on to
identify which problem should be studied, later
to narrow down which causes of the problem
to address first.
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Cont.
Process Flow Diagram or Flow Process Chart
Purpose
Flow charts provide a visual illustration of the sequence of operations
required to complete a task.
Flow charts
Flow charting is the first step we take in understanding a process.
Construction of the flow chart (General guidelines)
1. Involving the right people in making the flow chart.
2. Flow charts usually require more time to construct than expected.
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3.Asking questions is the key to the flow
charting process.
What is the first thing that happen?.
what is the next thing that happen?
Where does the outputs of this operation go?
Where does the inputs to the process come
from?
how does the inputs get to the process?
Is their anything else that must be done at this
point?

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Cont.
Symbols used
Beginning and
Ending steps
Activity
Description
Decision
Box
To show the direction of flow
from one activity to the next.
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Steps in drawing flowchart
Identify the start & end of the process.
Observe the entire process form start to end.
Define the steps in the process.
Construct a draft of flowchart to represent the process.
Review the draft flowchart with the people involved in the
process.
Improve the flowchart based on this review.
Verify the flowchart against the actual process.
Date the flowchart for future reference.
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Start
Receive
Document
Enter number of
Copies in Log
Start
Copying
Restart
Copying
Machine-
operated
Properly
Call for
Pick-up
End
Correct
Fault
Yes
No
A Typical Flow Chart
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Cont.
Cause and Effect Diagram
Cause-effect diagram is a tool for analyzing and illustrating a process by
showing the main causes and sub causes leading to an effect (symptom).
One method used is the 5M
Machinery, Manpower, Method, Material, Maintenance
In non-manufacturing organization 4P
People, Plant (the equipment used), Policies, Procedures.
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Cont.
Material
Machine/
Plant
Measurement/
Policies
Quality
Problem
Men/
People
Methods/
Procedures
Generic cause-effect diagram
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Methods
Mixing
Speed
Pre-cure Period
Machines
Molding
Trimming
Stamping
Edge
Flaws
Base Specs
Color Matl.
Materials
Base Variation
Supervision
Training
Morale
Operators
Casue and Effect diagram for Edge Flaws
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Why should we use a Cause & Effect Diagram
Is tool that is useful for identifying &
organizing the known or possible causes of
quality, or the lack of it.
The structure provided by the diagram helps
team members think systematic way.
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Benefits of Cause & Effect Diagram
It encourages the root causes of problem or quality
characteristic using a structured approach.
It encourages group participation & utilizes group knowledge
of the process.
They use an orderly, easy-to-read format to diagram cause-
and-effect relationships.
It indicates possible causes of variations.
It increases knowledge of the process by helping everyone to
learn more about the factors at work and how they relate.
It identifies areas where data should be collected for further
study.
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Cont.
Check Sheets
Check sheet is a simple data-recording device.
Check sheets and simple surveys are effective methods, easy to
design, and fun to implement either as an individual or a team.
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Check sheets have the following main functions:
1. Production process distribution checks: where distribution lies.
2. Defective item checks: to determine what kind of defects exist in the
process.
3. Defective location checks: to determine where the column defects on
part are located.
4. Defective cause checks: type of defect and thus validate the cause.
5. Check-up confirmation checks : final phase assembly to check the
finished product or work.
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Check sheets have the following main functions:
1. creates easy to understand data.
2. Builds with each observation a clear picture of the facts.
3.Forces agreement on the definition of each condition or event of interest.
4.Makes patterns in the data become obvious quickly.

Defect type Insufficient
solder
Cold solder Solder
bridge
Blow holes Excessive
solder
Frequency Xxxx Xxxxx Xxxx Xxx Xxx
Total 4 5 4 3 3
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Cont.
Histogram
It is used to determine the spread or variation of a set of data points in a
graphical form.
The histogram will graphically show:
1. The center of the data.
2. The spread of the data.
3. Any data skew ness (slant, bias or run at an angle).
4. The presence of outliers (product outside the specification range).
5. The presence of multiple modes (or peaks) within the data.
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Cont.
299.4 299.6 299.8 300 300.2
20
16
12
8
4
0
Histogram
C

o

u

n

t
s

Michelso.Dat
A Typical Histogram
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20
10
71 77 83 90 97 104 111
No# of Samples = 50
Histogram
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Cont.
Statistical Fundamentals
Statistics is defined as the science that deals with:
1. The collection
2. Tabulation
3. Analysis
4. Interpretation
5. Presentation of quantitative data.
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Measures of Central tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
GM
HM

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Dispersion
SD
MD
QD
CV
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Normal curve
F
r
e

q
u
e
n
c
y

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Thickness of output in mm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Normal Curve is a smooth symmetrical bell shaped curve as shown below.
CTQ
Normal Distribution Curve
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Introduction to Control Charts
Purpose
To ensure that the process is in control and to monitor process variation on a
continuous basis.
The development and use of statistics and statistical theories about
distributions and how they vary has become the cornerstone of process
improvement.
Common and Special Cause Variation
Variation in a process can be caused by, or related to, two types of causes.
1. Common or system causes
2. Special or local causes
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Special causes are problems that arise in a
periodic fashion.
Unpredictable & can be dealt with at the
machine or operator level.
Operator error, broken tools, machine setting
drift.
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Common causes are problems in the system
itself.
They are always present & affect the output of
the process.
Poor training, inappropriate production
methods, poor work station.
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Shewart chart:
Statistically based control chart is a device to
be used.
At the point of operation
By the operator of that process
To assess the current situation
By taking sample & plotting sample result.
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Steps in control charts
Identify quality characteristics of product or
process that affects fitness for use.
Design the sampling plan & decide method of
its measurement.
Take samples at different intervals & plot
statistics of the sample measurements on the
control chart
Take corrective action : when a signal for
significant change in process.

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Elements in control charts:
Upper control limits
Upper warning line
Lower control limits
Lower warning line
Plotting of sample statistics
Line connecting the plotted statistics.

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Control charts
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Variable Control Charts
These charts are used for variable data that is for quality characteristics
which can be measured.
Basic Steps for Control Charts
Elements of Typical Control Chart
Out of Control Process
Interpretation of the X-bar and Range Charts
Factors for Control Chart Limits
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Cont.
Control Charts for Attributes
1. Many quality characteristics cannot be conveniently represented
numerically.
2. In such cases, each item inspected is classified as either conforming or
nonconforming to the specifications on that quality characteristic.
3. Quality characteristics of this type are called attributes.
4. Examples are nonfunctional semiconductor chips, warped connecting
rods, etc.
5. Our objectives for this section are to learn how to use control charts to
monitor discrete data.
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Process Capability
Process capability is the long-term performance level of the process
after it has been brought under statistical control.
It is the ability of the combination of your 5 M's to produce a product
that will consistently meet the design requirements and the customer
expectation.
Men, machine, material, method, Money.
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Process Capability
Inherent variability a quality characteristic that
the process is capable of maintaining, when in
a state of statistical control under a given set of
condition.
Process capability = 3 SD= Total Spread of 6 SD
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Process capability is the repeatability and
consistency of a manufacturing process
relative to the customer requirements in terms
of specification limits of a product parameter.
This measure is used to objectively measure
the degree to which your process is or is not
meeting the requirements
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Capability indices can be used to compare the
product/process matches and identify the
poorest match (lowest capability).
The poorest matches then can be targeted on a
priority basis for improvement.

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The diagram on the left shows a series of
sample distributions that fall inside of and
outside of the specification limit.
This is an example of an unstable, not capable
process. The right side of the diagram shows
all of the distributions falling within the
specification limits.
This is an example of a capable process.

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Process capability can be expressed with an index.
Assuming that the mean of the process is centered on
the target value, the process capability index Cp can
be used.

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Cp is a simple process capability index that relates the
allowable spread of the spec limits (spec range or the
difference between the upper spec limit, USL, and the
lower specification limit, LSL) to the measure of the
actual, or natural, variation of the process,
represented by 6 sigma, where sigma is the estimated
process standard deviation.

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If the process is in statistical control, via "normal" SPC charts,
and the process mean is centered on the target, then Cp can be
calculated as follows:
Cp = (USL - LSL) / 6 sigma
Cp<1 means the process variation exceeds specification, and a
significant number of defects are being made. This process
will produce more than 2700 non-conforming PPM.

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Cp=1 means that the process is just meeting specifications. A
minimum of 0.3% defects will be made and more if the
process is not centered.
Cp>1 means that the process variation is less than the
specification, however, defects might be made if the process is
not centered on the target value.

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While Cp relates the spread of the process
relative to the specification width, it does not
address how well the process average, X, is
centered to the target value. Cp is often
referred to as process "potential".

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Cpk measures not only the process variation
with respect to allowable specifications, it also
considers the location of the process average.
Cpk is taken as the smaller of either Cpl or
Cpu
Cpl = (X -LSL) / 3 sigma where X is the
process mean
Cpu = (USL - X ) / 3 sigma where X is the
process mean

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Factors influencing process capability
Condition of machine /equipment
Type of operation & operational conditions
Raw materials
Skill of operators
Measurement method/instrument
Inspectors skill.

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Process Capability Studies are designed to see what
the process is "capable" of doing under controlled
conditions.
The studies look at how capable the process is given
ideal conditions over a short period of time (such as
one hour to twenty-four hours.)
The individual who is mainly responsible for a the
process capability study is a Process Engineer.

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The Process Engineer must keep in mind the
following two considerations when conducting the
study.

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xBAR; s
xBAR; R
n=1
x CHART; MOVING RANGE
CONTROL
CHART
c or u
p
p or np
Decision Tree
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Cont.
Scatter Diagrams
The Scatter Diagram is another quality tool that can be used to show
the relationship between "paired data", and can provide more useful
information about a production process.
Scatter diagrams are graphical techniques to analyze the relationship
between two variables.
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Constructing the Scatter Diagram
Step 1: Select the two items you wish to study.
Step 2: Collect the data.
Step 3: Draw the axis of the scatter diagram.
Step 4: Plot each set of paired data onto the graph.

Ch-7 (Statistical Process Control)

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7-1 Excel Books Total Quality Management Text and Cases G Nagalingappa, Manjunath V S

Copyright 2010, G Nagalingappa, Manjunath V S

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