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An Introduction to Ecology and

The Biosphere
I. Scope of ecology
A. Interactions between organisms and their
environment

1. Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between
organisms and their environment.

a. Interactions determine distribution and abundance of
organisms.

b. Two main themes in ecology are:
- Where do organisms live? & Why?
- How many organisms are present? & Why?



c. Ecology was historically an observational science, often
descriptive natural history.

d. An organisms environment has both abiotic and biotic
components.

- Abiotic components are nonliving chemical and physical
factors such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients.

- Biotic components are living factors such as other
organisms.

2. Ecology and evolutionary biology are closely related
sciences

a. Events that occur in the framework of ecological time
(minutes, days, years) translate into effects over evolutionary
time (decades, millennia).

Example: Hawks feeding on mice impact mouse population
and may eventually lead to selection for mice with fur as
camouflage.

3. Ecological research scale ranges from individuals to the
biosphere

a. Organismal ecology is concerned about the way in which
an individual interacts with its environment.

b. Population ecology is the study of a group of individuals
of the same species.

c. Community ecology deals with all interacting species
within a particular area.


d. An ecosystem consists of all abiotic factors plus all
organisms that exist in a certain area Ecosystem ecology.

Landscape ecology- interactions among ecosystems.

e. The biosphere is the global ecosystem. Global climate
research is an example of ecology at the biosphere scale.

II. Factors affecting the distribution of organisms

- Biogeography is the study of past and present distribution
of individual species.


A. Species dispersal contributes to the distribution of
organisms

Dispersal refers to the process of distribution of
individuals within geographic population boundaries.

Question: Is the distribution of a species limited by
dispersal, i.e. by movement of the organisms?

Answer can be obtained by transplant experiments.

If the transplant is successful, then the organisms just
havent reached the target area.
If the transplant is not successful, then other factors
limit the distribution of the organisms, such as
competitors, lack of a food source, etc.
a. Introduced species sometimes have disasterous impacts:
- African honeybee, Zebra mussels
Many introductions intentional.
The Laws of 10.
Why do the successful invaders succeed?
Invasional meltdowns?
Climate change effects?
B. Behavior and habitat selection contribute to the
distribution of organisms

1. Organisms may not occupy all potentially suitable
habitat. Why?
a. Evolution doesnt lead to perfect organisms.
b. Evolution is an ongoing process. Environments
change, but it takes a while for organisms to respond.



C. Biotic factors affect distribution

1. Organisms required for potential community members to
colonize may be lacking.
- Pollinators, prey, predators that limit competition

D. Abiotic factors affect distribution
1. Abiotic factors of interest include:


- Temperature (range from 0 to 45 C)

- Water

- Sunlight

- Wind (increases heat & water loss)

- Rocks and soil

Fig. 50.13
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Local and seasonal effects on climate.
Bodies of water and topographic features such as
mountain ranges can affect local climates.
Ocean currents can influence climate in coastal
areas.
Mountains affect rainfall greatly.
Fig. 50.14
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings


b. Lake stratification and mixing alters oxygen and
nutrient levels. Dependent on temperature changes and
effect on water density.



Aquatic and terrestrial biomes
(Biome = major ecosystem type)
A. Aquatic biomes cover about 75% of the earths surface
- Wetlands
- Lakes
- Rivers, streams
- Intertidal zones
- Oceanic pelagic biome
- Coral reefs
- Benthos


Oligotrophic Lake: Nutrient poor, water is clear,
oxygen rich; little productivity by algae, relatively
deep with little surface area.
Eutrophic lake: nutrient
rich, lots of algal
productivity so its oxygen
poor at times, water is
murkier often a result of
input of agricultural
fertilizers
Rivers and Streams: Organisms need adaptations
so that they are not swept away by moving water;
heavily affected by man changing the course of
flow (E.g. dams and channel-straightening) and by
using rivers to dispose of waste.
Wetlands: includes marshes, bogs, swamps, seasonal ponds.
Among richest biomes with respect to biodiversity and
productivity. Very few now exist as they are thought of often
as wastelands.
Estuary: Place where freshwater stream or river merges
with the ocean. Highly productive biome; important for
fisheries and feeding places for water fowl. Often heavily
polluted from river input so many fisheries are now lost.
Marine environment with zonation.
Intertidal Zone: Alternately
submerged and exposed by
daily cycle of tides. Often
polluted by oil that decreases
biodiversity.
Coral Reefs: occur in neritic
zones of warm, tropical
water, dominated by
cnidarians (corals); very
productive, protect land
from storms; most are now
dying from rise in global
temperatures
Deep-sea vent: Occurs in benthic zone; diverse, unusual
organisms; energy comes not from light but from
chemicals released from the magma.
B. Terrestrial biomes
- Tropical forest
- Savanna
- Desert
- Chaparral
- Temperate grassland
- Temperate deciduous forest
- Coniferous forest
- Tundra



Tropical Forest: Vertical stratification with trees in
canopy blocking light to bottom strata. Many trees
covered by epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants).
Example of Tropical, Dry
Forest
Desert: Sparse rainfall (< 30 cm per year), plants and
animals adapted for water storage and conservation. Can
be either very, very hot, or very cold (e.g. Antarctica)
Chaparral: Dense, spiny, evergreen shrubs, mild rainy
winters; long, hot, dry summers. Periodic fires, some
plants require fire for seeds to germinate.
Temperate Grassland: Marked by seasonal drought and
fires, and grazing by large animals. Rich habitat for
agriculture, very little prairie exists in US today.
Temperate Deciduous Forest: Mid-latitudes with moderate
amounts of moisture, distinct vertical strata: trees,
understory shrubs, herbaceous sub-stratum. Loss of
leaves in cold, many animals hibernate or migrate then.
Original forests lost from North America by logging and
clearing.
Coniferous forest: Largest terrestial biome on earth, old
growth forests rapidly disappearing, usually receives lots
of moisture as rain or snow.
Tundra: Permafrost (Permanent frozen ground), bitter
cold, high winds and thus no trees. Has 20% of land
surface on earth.

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