10.11.

3 Thermal (cold expansion)

10.11.2 Thermal (hot shrunk)
a mechanical compression joint consists of an oversize
peg being forced into an undersize hole so that the peg
is compressed and the hole is stretched. In a lightly
compressed joint, friction will be generated between the
two components as they try to spring back to their
original dimensions.
Fig.10.30 Mechanical
compression joint.(a)the
bush becomes
compressed as it is
inserted in the bush plate
and the bush plate
expands;(b)the bush
plate springs back on the
bush and grips it-the
bush plate is in tension
and the bush is in
compression
Back to slide2
You may remember that when metals are heated they
expand. So, if the outer component is heated sufficiently it
expands to a size where it can be slipped easily over the inner
component. As the outer component cools it shrinks back to
its original size and forms a compression joint on the inner
component as shown in Fig.10.31 (a).Heating must be
uniform to prevent distortion and the temperature has to be
closely controlled.

*Too low a temperature results in insufficient expansion for
the components to be assembled.
*Too high a temperature can result in changes in the
properties and structure of the material used for the outer
(heated) component.

a. D1>D2 when shaft and collar are at room temperature
D2>D1 when the collar is heated, allowing the shaft to
enter
A compression (shrink) joint is made when the collar cools
and shrinks onto the shaft. The shaft is in compression and
the collar is in tension

Back to slide2
In a cold expansion joint, the inner component is
cooled down until it will slip easily into the hole in the outer
component, as it warms up to room temperature, it expands
and forms a compression joint with the outer component, as
shown in Fig.10.31 (b).This technique requires the use of such
coolants as solid carbon dioxide(dry ice) or liquid nitrogen.
These are best used under carefully controlled workshop
conditions as such low temperatures are potentially
dangerous and special equipment is required in their use.
The appropriate codes of practice and safety regulations must
be rigidly adhered to.
Cooling has the advantage that it does not affect the
physical properties of the material, whereas heating may do
so
b. D1>D2 when shaft and collar are at room temperature
D2>D1 when the shaft is cooled in liquid nitrogen. The collar can now
slip over the shaft
A compression (expansion) joint is made when the shaft warms up to
room temperature and expands into the collar. The shaft is in
compression and the collar is in tension

The process of soldering exploits the fusibility (low melting
temperature) of tin-lead alloys
The molten 'solder', as the alloy is called, bonds to an unmelted parent
metal by the application of heat and a suitable flux.
The parent metal is the metal from which the components being
joined are manufactured
the solder must have a lower melting temperature than the parent
metal and it must also be capable of reacting together with the parent
metal to form a bond.
The purpose of a flux is to:
Remove the oxide film from the surfaces to be soldered.
Prevent the oxide film from reforming during the soldering process.
'Wet' the surfaces being joined so that the molten solder will run out
into an even film
Allow itself to be easily displaced by the molten solder so that a metal
to metal contact is achieved.

Back to slide7

10.12.1 Active fluxes
Active fluxes such as Baker's fluid (acidified zinc
chloride solution) quickly dissolve the oxide film and
prevent it reforming.
Unfortunately all active fluxes leave a corrosive residue
which has to be washed off immediately after
soldering and the joint has to be treated with a rust
inhibitor.
Back to slide8

Passive fluxes, such as resin, are used for those
applications where it is not possible to remove any
corrosive residue by washing
Unfortunately passive fluxes do not remove oxide films
to any appreciable extent; they only prevent them from
reforming during the soldering process. Therefore the
initial mechanical scouring of the joint faces has to be
very thorough.

Hard soldering is the general term used for silver
soldering and brazing
Can be defined as : A process of joining metals in which
a molten filler metal is drawn by capillary attraction
into the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the
parts to be joined.
hard solders also have a melting temperature range
below that of the parent metal. However, this melting
temperature range (generally 500C) is well above that
of soft solder and a soldering iron cannot be used to
heat the joint and load the solder into it.


Fig. 10.33 Flame brazing: (a) typically hand torches used for hard
soldering and brazing, (b) fire bricks or other suitable insulating
material is packed around the component to form a brazing
hearth which contains and reflects the torch's heat
The success of all hard-soldering processes depends upon the
following conditions:
Selection of a suitable filler alloy which has a melting range appreciably lower than the
parent metals being joined.
Thorough cleanliness of the surfaces to be joined by hard solder.
Complete removal of the oxide film from the joint surfaces before and during hard
soldering by means of a suitable flux.
Complete 'wetting' of the joint surfaces by the molten filler alloy. When a surface is
'wetted' by a liquid, a continuous film of the liquid remains on that surface after draining.
This condition is essential for hard soldering and the flux, having removed the oxide
film, must completely wet the joint surfaces. This 'wetting' action by the flux assists the
spreading and feeding of the molten filler alloy into the joint by capillary action. This
ensures a completely filled joint.
Since the molten filler alloy is drawn into the joint by capillary attraction, the space
between the joint surfaces must be kept to a minimum and it must also be kept constant.
Any local increase in the gap can present a barrier to the filling of the filter alloy. This will
prevent the joint from being uniformly filled, resulting in serious loss of strength.
Melting the filler alloy alone is not sufficient to produce a sound joint. The parent metal
must itself be raised to the brazing temperature so that the filler alloy melts on coming in
contact with the joint surfaces even after the flame has been withdrawn.

10.13.2 Brazing spelters
usually referred to as 'self-fluxing' alloys
These alloys contain silver, phosphorus and copper
cheaper and stronger than silver solders, but they can
only be used to braze copper and copper alloy
components in the air

Back to slide15
are brass alloys and are the oldest filler alloys used
It is from the use of these brass alloys that the process
called 'brazing' gets it name
These spelters make the strongest joints but they also
have the highest melting temperatures. They are
mainly used to braze copper, steel and malleable cast
iron components.

additional material added to the joint has a similar
composition and strength to the metals being joined

Fig. 10.34 Fusion welding: (a) before - a single 'V' butt
requires extra metal; (b) after - the edges of the 'V' are
melted and fused together with the molten filler metal
10.14.2 Metallic arc welding
the heat source in a mixture of oxygen and acetylene
burning to produce a flame whose temperature can
reach 3250C and this is above the melting point of
most metals.
The welding gases form a highly flammable and even
explosive mixture, so this equipment must only be
used by a suitable qualified person or a trainee under
the direct instruction of such person

Fig. 10.35 Oxyacetylene welding equipment
Fig. 10.36 Oxyacetylene welding techniques: (a) the leftward
method of welding - this is the easiest technique for a right-handed
operator; it is used for sheet metal; (b) the rightward method of
welding - this method is used for thicker plate as it gives better
preparation
the heat energy required to melt the edges of the
components being joined and also the filler rod is
supplied by an electric arc. The arc is the name given
to the prolonged spark struck between two electrodes.
The dangers with arc welding arise from the very high
temperatures and very heavy electric currents
involved. Also high voltages are present in the primary
circuit (supply side) of the transformer, and these can
lead to accidents involving electrocution

Fig. 10.37 Comparison of (a) oxyacetylene welding
and (b) manual metallic arc welding Figure 10.38 shows the general arrangement of
metallic arc-welding installation
The structures on a welded joint range from the wrought
structures of the parent metal to the cast structures of
the weld itself, all of which will have been subjected to
heat treatment by the high temperatures involved in the
process. The heat-affected zone of the parent metal will
exhibit the effects of heat treatment. The unaffected
regions, where the temperature has not been so high,
will retain the original wrought structure of the parent
metal. Therefore the effects of welding can be studied
under the following headings.:

The weld-metal deposit.
The heat-affected zone.

the weld metal can be considered as a miniature
casting which has cooled rapidly from an extremely
high temperature
Long columnar type crystals may be formed giving
rise to a relatively weak structure, as shown in Fig.
10.39(a)

Long columnar type crystals may be formed giving rise to a relatively
weak structure, as shown in Fig. 10.39(a). In a multi-run weld each
deposit normalizes the preceding run and considerable grain refinement
occurs with a consequent improvement in the mechanical properties of
the joint. In this case, only the top run exhibits the coarse 'as-cast'
structure as shown in Fig. 20.39(b).
Fig. 10.39 Weld metal deposit structure: (a)
large single-run weld; (b) metallic arc weld
The heat-affected zone of the parent metal is
difficult to define. It will depend upon such
factors as:
The temperature f the weld pool.
The time taken to complete the weld.
The thermal conductivity of the parent metal.
The specific heat of the parent metal and the dimensions of the
parent metal.
The method of welding used.
The heat-affected zone in mild steel plate can exhibit
various structures. These range from an overheated structure for
those parts adjacent to the weld pool and, therefore, heated to well
above the upper critical temperature, to those parts whose
temperature has hardly risen above room temperature
Fig. 10.40 Macrostructure of single-run welds in mild
steel: (a) oxyacetylene weld; (b) metallic arc weld
The properties of the material will change these changes in structure. The
coarser grains will show greater ductility and softness but reduced strength.
The finer crystals will show less ductility but greater hardness and strength.
These effects become more apparent as the carbon content of the steel
increases
This is a resistance welding process widely used in the
sheet metal industry
The joint is produced by making a series of spot welds
side by side at regular intervals
Apart from ensuring that the joint faces are clean and
free from corrosion, no special joint preparation is
required
Fig. 10.42 Structure of spot welds: (a) correct welding
temperature; (b) temperature too high