BY:-

RUMITA KUMARI
11101150717

CONTENTS

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
Frequency:- Frequency can be defined as
the number of occurrences within a given
period of time.
NEED FOR MEASUREMENT
Following parameters can be found
using this :-

Time period ( f = 1/T)
Angular frequency ( = 2f)
Wave number ( = 2/)
wavelength
velocity (f = v/)

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
Different devices which are used to measure
frequency :-
Revolution per minute(traditionally)
Storboscope
Frequency counter
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Wien bridge oscillator
Digital frequency meter



A BOUNCING BALL IS CAPTURED WITH A
STORBOSCOPIC FLASH AT 25 IMAGES PER SEC.
DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER
BASIC CIRCUIT
The block diagram of the basic circuit of
a digital frequency meter is shown
below:-


Unknown
frequency
source
Amplifier
Schmitt
trigger
Start-stop
gate
Counters
COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR NORMAL
DFM.
GROUNDING AND SHIELDING
Good design of electronic circuits and systems
begins with grounding and shielding. Grounds
and shields improve safety and reduce
interface from noise. Properly grounded circuits
and instruments reduce dangerous voltage
differentials between them. Shields minimize
interference from noise by reducing noise
emission and noise susceptibility.
GROUNDING
GROUNDING
The term ground in electrical
circuits refers to a current return
path through the earth. It is
represented by the following
symbol:-
THE CONCEPT OF EARTH GROUND
Being electrically neutral, earth is
considered to be at zero potential and
establishes a convenient reference frame
for voltage measurements. Note that
voltmeters read only the difference in
potential between two points , absolute
measurements can be made by using
earth as a reference. A true earth ground,
as defined by the National electrical
code, physically consists of conductive
pipe rod driven into the earth to a
minimum depth of 08 feet.
EXAMPLE
The connection of a power supply:-
The supply is represented as a
variable voltage battery . The three
terminals are shown as +ve, -ve , and
a ground terminal. The ground
terminal of the supply is tied to the
case of the instrument , which in turn
is wired to a true earth ground.

THE CONNECTION OF A POWER SUPPLY
earth
load
SHIELDING
SHIELDING
Shielding is a way of protecting
conductors from corrosion , rusting or
depletion. Shielding can be anything from
using a coaxial or shielding cable , to a
sealed conductive chamber for circuit
isolation.
Purpose :- 1) It protects the circuit from
noise or unwanted signals.
2) It protects the outside world from
interference of its own.
3) It is mostly used to block E-fields.

PURPOSE AND GUIDELINES
It is especially useful where open frame
transformers or unshielded coils are used
and would otherwise exchange signals
by mutual inductance.
For a shield to be effective there must be
no currents flowing through the shield
itself.
Practical guidelines :-
1) Twisted pair cable is usually effective
up to 1MHz . It is cheaper and flexible.
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
Coaxial cables are expensive , less
flexible , low loss and less variance in
characteristic impedance from dc to
very high frequencies (>200MHz).
Ribbon cable is ubiquitous in
instrumentation. These are much more
expensive , useful and less flexible. It
is good for low frequency operations.