Course: BIOL 117 General Biology 2 Lab

Instructor: Anne Rybicki, PhD

Email: acrybicki@gmail.com or contact me through Blackboard
Course description: This course examines the mechanisms of evolution through
the exploration of the five kingdoms of life, both on the basis of their unique
anatomical structures and adaptations as well as those conserved through evolution
Required Texts:
Explorations in General Biology Laboratory, Eileen Walsh, 2011 (ISBN 978-0-
7575-8927-0)
I will post the Powerpoint intro to each lab on Blackboard after class each week
Attendance: Attendance is required and will be taken at every lab period; students
must arrive on time and stay for the entire lab period; there will be no makeup lab
quizzes; exams can only be made-up if you have a valid excuse and you notify the
instructor before the exam.
Please read the assigned lab investigation before coming to lab
Grading:
Your grade in the lab will comprise 25% of your course grade. It is a
departmental policy that a student must receive a minimum grade of 50 to receive
credit for the course
The lab grade will be determined by
Lab work (taxonomic key): 10% (I will also check your lab books)
Tests (3 tests): 90% (tests will be both written and practical)
Students at Westchester Community College must abide by the Honor Code.
Anyone caught cheating on an exam will receive a grade of 0 for that exam.
Additionally, the Chairman and Provost will be informed in writing and the
student will receive an F for the course
Student obligations:
No eating/drinking in the lab and please set your cell phones to silent mode.
You must leave your work area the same as you found it (clean; all equipment put
away)
Lab 1 (1/23): Exercise 14 Classification and survey of the kingdoms: prokaryote; protista; and fungi
Lab 2 (1/30): Exercise 15 Bryophyta; Exercise 16 Pterophyta
Lab 3 (2/6): Exercise 17 Coniferophyta; Exercise 18 Anthophyta
Lab 4 (2/13): Test 1
Lab 5 (2/20): Exercise 19 Anatomy of the flowering plant
Lab 6 (2/27): Exercise 19 Anatomy of the flowering plant
Lab 7 (3/6): Test 2
Lab 8 (3/13): Exercise 20 Porifera; Exercise 21 Cnidaria
Spring break 3/17-3/23
Lab 9 (3/27): Exercise 22 Annelids; Exercise 23 Molluscs
Lab 10 (4/3): Exercise 24 Arthropods; Exercise 25 Echinoderms
Lab 11 (4/10): Test 3
Lab 12 (4/17): Exercise 26 Fetal pig
Lab 13 (4/24): Exercise 26 Fetal pig
Lab 14 (5/1): Exercise 31 Use and construction of a taxonomic key due
Lab 15 (5/8): Test 4 (given the week before Finals week)

Taxonomy is that branch of biology dealing with the identification and naming
of organisms
Five kingdoms based on their
cell structure and sources of
nutrition:

1-Monera: includes Eubacteria
and Archaebacteria;
heterotrophic and autotrophic
prokaryotes

2-Protista: heterotrophic and
autotrophic eukaryotes

3-Fungi: heterotrophic

4-Plantae: autotrophic

5-Animalia: heterotrophic
Autotrophs- organisms that are able to make
energy-containing organic molecules from
inorganic raw material by using basic energy
sources such as sunlight (plant kingdom)
Heterotrophs- organism that obtains organic
food molecules by eating other organisms
(animal kingdom)
Carolus Linneus, a Swedish
botanist, developed the concept of
binomial nomenclature, whereby
scientists speaking and writing
different languages could organize
biological organisms; when writing
genus and species information, the
Genus is always capitalized, the
species lower-case, and both are
italicized e.g. Homo sapiens
Linnean hierarchical classification
was based on the premise that the
species was the smallest unit, and
that each species nested within a
higher category
Species- organisms that can
interbreed and produce viable,
fertile offspring
Human
Taxonomy

Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
(Division
for plants)
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Order
Primates
Family
Hominidae
Genus
Homo
species
sapiens

Earliest
organisms
Domain Bacteria
Domain Archaea
Found in extreme
habitats; live
without oxygen
Kingdom
Protists

Kingdom Monera
Kingdom
Plantae
Domain
Eukaryote
Kingdom
Fungi
Kingdom
Animalia
The Structure and Function of Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic cells
Lack true nuclei; the nucleoid is a region where the circular
chromosome (DNA) is located
Plasmids are accessory rings of DNA
Lack other membrane-enclosed organelles; ribosomes are the only
cytoplasmic organelles. They are smaller than eukaryote ribosomes
Have cell walls exterior to their plasma membranes; the cell wall
prevents bursting or shrinking when the osmotic concentration changes
The cell is surrounded by a capsule (attached) and/or by a loose
gelatinous sheath (slime layer). This layer helps attach the cell to
attach to environmental surfaces. Many prokaryotes adhere to surfaces
by short hair-like structures called pili or fimbriae.
Some move by means of flagella; the flagellum contains a hook and a
basal body. It rotates 360 degrees to propel the cell.


Plasma membrane
(encloses cytoplasm)
Cell wall (provides
Rigidity)
Capsule (sticky
coating)
Prokaryotic
flagellum
(for propulsion)
Ribosomes
(synthesize
proteins)
Nucleoid
(contains DNA)
Pili (attachment structures)
Prokaryotes
SHAPES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Spherical (cocci) Rod-shaped (bacilli) Spiral
Lab exercise-observe slide
Eubacteria- characterized according to their shape, motility (presence of a
trichus), and composition of their cell walls
Prokaryotes come in several shapes:
Spherical (cocci)
Rod-shaped (bacilli)
Spiral
Streptococci
(filamentous)
Staphlococci (divide
along multiple axes)
A Gram stain of mixed Staphlococcus
aureus (Gram positive cocci) and
Escherichia coli (Gram negative bacilli);
Gram-positive: Thick peptidoglycan
wall becomes dehydrated and retains
the crystal violet purple stain
Gram-negative: Need a pink
counterstain (safanin) because the
crystal violet stain is not retained
(lipopolysaccharides in outer wall
dissolve with alcohol)
Gram-positive bacteria have
cell walls that are made up of
50-90% peptidoglycan. When
crystal violet stain is used to
stain the bacteria and the
decolorizer (alcohol) is added,
the thick cell wall becomes
dehydrated and traps the crystal
violet inside the bacteria; gram-
positive bacteria stain purple
Gram-negative bacteria
generally possess a thin layer of
peptidoglycan between two
membranes. After the bacteria
are stained with crystal violet,
the decolorizer (alcohol)
removes the outer cell
membrane and the crystal
violet is also lost; gram-negative
bacteria stain pink with the
safanin counterstain
Cyanobacteria: blue-green in color, which is why they are often called
blue-green bacteria. They are common in ponds, lakes, streams and moist
areas of land. They are composed of chains of bacteria (filamentous) and
contain phycocyanin, a bluish pigment that absorbs light, and chlorophyll,
a pigment involved in photosynthesis, a process that uses the suns energy
to make sugar molecules. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes
Oscillatoria is a genus of
filamentous cyanobacterium
which is named for the oscillation
in its movement. Filaments in the
colonies can slide back and forth
against each other until the whole
mass is reoriented to its light
source
Anabena- a genus of filamentous
cyanobacteria that exists as plankton. It
found in colonies and is known for its
nitrogen fixing abilities.
During times of low environmental
nitrogen, about one cell out of every ten
will differentiate into a heterocyst (lacking
pigmentation). Heterocysts then supply
neighboring cells with fixed nitrogen in
return for the products of photosynthesis
(sugars), that they can no longer perform.
This separation of functions is essential
because the nitrogen fixing enzyme in
heterocysts, nitrogenase, is unstable in the
presence of oxygen.
heterocyst
Lab exercise-observe slide
Kingdom: Protists
Protists are not one distinct group but instead represent all the eukaryotes
that are not plants, animals, or fungi.
Protists differ from prokaryotes because they are eukaryotes that have a
nucleus and contain DNA in chromosomes
Protists are divided into three groups based on physical characteristics
(locomotion) and modes of nutrition:
protozoa (animal-like protists); heterotrophs (ingest food particles)
algae (plant-like protists; includes seaweeds); photoautotrophs (make
food through photosynthesis)
slime molds (fungal-like protists); chemoheterotrophs (absorb organic
molecules)
Animal-like protists have 3 different modes of locomotion: flagella, cilia,
and pseudopods; includes Paramecium, Euglena, and Amoeba
Most species of Euglena have photosynthesizing chloroplasts within the body of the
cell, which enable them to feed by autotrophy, like plants. However, they can also take
nourishment heterotrophically, like animals. They are considered mixotrophs, an
organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon
Lab exercise-observe slide
Euglena gracilis
Lab exercise-observe slide
Amoeba proteus
Food being
ingested
Pseudopodium
of amoeba
Lab exercise-observe slide
Plant-like protists contain plastids which are very similar to chloroplasts;
may be that a cyanobacteria became an organelle in a protist cell by
endosymbiosis
Plant-like protists include diatoms and Spirogyra
Unicellular algae are diatoms in the Phylum Bacillariophyta. Some have
shells composed of silica. Most are photosynthetic and are an important part
of the aquatic ecosystem known as plankton. They produce much of the
oxygen we breathe, and also take in much of the carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere
The siliceous shells of
diatoms have many uses,
such as in reflective paint,
in toothpaste, or as a filter
(diatomaceous earth)

Lab exercise-observe slide
Spirogyra is a genus of filamentous green algae named for the helical or spiral
arrangement of the chloroplasts. It also has a large central vacuole
Lab exercise-observe slide
Most protists are unicellular and can live independently or in colonies
(filamentous organisms). Some protists are truly multicellular where the cells
within the organism are specialized for different purposes. Brown algae
(kelp; Laminaria) in the Phylum Phaeophyta is multicellular with
different body structures e.g. the holdfast that attaches the kelp to an
immovable surface
Fungal-like protists
Phylum Myxomycota contains plasmodial slime molds such as Physarum. They
reproduce sexually and contain haploid and diploid forms during their life cycle.
The diploid feeding stage of the organism is known as a plasmodium due to a
process called syngamy (when cells fuse); the plasmodium is therefore
multinucleated. Under dry conditions (or when food is scarce), stalked
reproductive structures called sporangia form. Haploid spores are formed by
meiosis. Under wet conditions, the haploid spores germinate and fuse before
fertilization.
Feeding stage
dry
wet
Lab exercise-observe slide
When it is wet, the spores germinate;
when it is dry, the stalks form and
spores are produced
Animal-like protist
Animal-like protist
Animal-like protist
Plant-like protist
Fungal-like protist
A model for the evolution of multicellular organisms from unicellular
protists.
Unicellular
protist
Colony
Early multicellular organism
with specialized, interdependent cells
Locomotor
cells
Food-synthesizing
cells
Later organism with
gametes and somatic cells
Somatic
cells
Gamete
Multicellular eukaryotes include
fungi, plants, and animals
Fungi are multicellular eukaryotes

Multicellularity is a big step in
evolution because organisms with
many cells can then use different cells
for specific functions; they can also
grow larger
Kingdom Fungi
Decomposers- break down organic material and recycle vital nutrients;
saprotrophic- decompose dead matter
Fungi are heterotrophs and absorb nutrients from outside their bodies
They use enzymes to breakdown complex molecules into simpler ones
Body structures: multicellular fungi and single cells (yeasts)
The morphology of multicellular fungi enhances their ability to absorb
nutrients
They are composed of mycelia, networks of branched hyphae adapted
for absorption
Most fungi have cell wall made of chitin (plant cell walls have cellulose
and pectin; bacterial cell walls have proteoglycan)

3 phyla: zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes based on type of
reproductive structures
1-Phylum Zygomycetes
Zygosporangia (sexually produced reproductive structures), which are
resistant to freezing and drying, can survive unfavorable conditions
Black bread mold Rhizopus nigricans
Hyphae absorb nutrients
During sexual reproduction, the haploid gametes from + and strains fuse
(zygote) and then form a thick zygospore in which meiosis occurs forming
haploid spores
Upon germination, a sporangium is formed and haploid spores released

Lab exercise-observe petri dish
Hyphae
Mycelia
Sporangia
Spores
Life cycle of Rhizopus
Zygosporangium
resistant to harsh
conditions
Fusion of hyphae
Sexual reproduction
Fusion of
nuclei
Sexual reproduction-fusion of hyphae (plasmogamy); fusion of nuclei
(karyogamy); production of spores in zygosporangia (meiosis)

Asexual reproduction- germination of haploid spores by mitosis to form
mycelia
2-Phylum Ascomycetes
Called sac fungi
Sexually, produce haploid spores in sacs called asci
Asexually, produce spores called conidia in projections of hyphae called
conidiophores
Sac fungi also include unicellular yeasts (Saccaromyces or bakers yeast) and the
multicellular morels, truffles, and Penicillium

conidia
Budding yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Ascomycetes)
Lab exercise-observe slide
Difference between conidia and ascospores.
Conidia tips of specialized hyphae, haploid, spores for wind dispersal
(asexual)

Ascospores haploid mycelia of opposite mating strains fuse and develop
spores within an ascus (sexual)
3-Phylum Basidiomycota- edible mushrooms; Basidiomycota
(basidio=little base) are filamentous fungi composed of hyphae and
produce sexual spores (basidiospores); includes Coprinus
stipe
cap
Gills- plates within the cap of the
basidiomycetes where spores are
produced
Lab exercise-observe Coprinus
In response to environmental stimuli, the mycelium reproduces sexually
by producing fruiting bodies called basidiocarps; spores= basidiospores
basidiocarp