Nucleic acids are molecules that store information for
cellular growth and reproduction
A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group: The pyrimidines and purines found in DNA and RNA
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Structures of the four deoxyribonucleotides Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Structures of the four ribonucleotides
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Pentose Sugars There are two related pentose sugars: - RNA contains ribose - DNA contains deoxyribose The sugars have their carbon atoms numbered with primes to distinguish them from the nitrogen bases
Ikatan nukleotida DNA dan RNA Ikatan Hidrogen pada pasangan basa Watson dan Crick Base Pairing in the DNA Double Helix Avery-Macleod-McCarty Difraksi Sinar X DNA Watson-Crick model for the structure of DNA Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hydrogen bonds between bases hold the strands together: A and T, C and G Figure 10.3D Ribbon model Partial chemical structure Computer model Hydrogen bond Central dogma of molecular genetics The function of DNA is to store information and pass it to RNA The function of RNA is to read, decode, and use the information received from DNA to make proteins Three fundamental processes take place: Replication process by which identical copies of DNA are made so the information can be preserved and handed down to offspring Transcription the process by which the genetic messages are read and carried out of the cell nucleus to ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs Translation the process by which the genetic messages are decoded and used to synthesize proteins Base Pairing in DNA: The Watson-Crick Model A representation of semiconservative DNA replication Replication of DNA Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings DNA replication begins at many specific sites How can entire chromosomes be replicated during S phase? Figure 10.5A Parental strand Origin of replication Bubble Two daughter DNA molecules Daughter strand Direction of Replication The enzyme helicase unwinds several sections of parent DNA At each open DNA section, called a replication fork, DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of 5-3ester bonds of the leading strand The lagging strand, which grows in the 3-5 direction, is synthesized in short sections called Okazaki fragments The Okazaki fragments are joined by DNA ligase to give a single 3-5 DNA strand What sequence of bases on one strand of DNA is complementary to the sequence TATGCAT on another strand?
Worked Example 24.1
Predicting the Complementary Base Sequence in Double-Stranded DNA Strategy Remember that A and G form complementary pairs with T and C Go through the sequence replacing A by T, G by C, T by A, and C by G Remember that the 5 end is on the left and the 3 end is on the right in the original strand
Worked Example 24.1
Predicting the Complementary Base Sequence in Double-Stranded DNA Solution Original: (5) TATGCAT (3) Compliment: (3) ATACGTA (5) or (5) ATGCATA (3)
Worked Example 24.1
Predicting the Complementary Base Sequence in Double-Stranded DNA Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into the polypeptide Figure 10.6A DNA RNA Protein TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION The information constituting an organisms genotype is carried in its sequence of bases DNA TRANSCRIPTION Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings An exercise in translating the genetic code Figure 10.8B Start codon RNA Transcribed strand Stop codon Translation Transcription DNA Polypeptide U C A G U C A G G A C U G A C U G A C U G A C U UUU UUC UUA UUG CUU CUC CUA CUG AUU AUC AUA AUG GUU GUC GUA GUG phe leu leu ile met (start) val UCU UCC UCA UCG CCU CCC CCA CCG ACU ACC ACA ACG GCU GCC GCA GCG ser pro thr ala UAU UAC UAA UAG CAU CAC CAA CAG AAU AAC AAG AAA GAU GAC GAA GAG tyr stop stop his gln asn lys asp glu UGU UGC UGA UGG CGU CGC CGA CGG AGU AGC AGA AGG GGU GGC GGA GGG cys stop trp arg ser arg gly F i r s t
B a s e T h i r d
B a s e
Second Base Virtually all organisms share the same genetic code unity of life Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Each tRNA molecule has a triplet anticodon on one end and an amino acid attachment site on the other Figure 10.11B, C Anticodon Amino acid attachment site Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ribosomes build polypeptides Figure 10.12A-C Codons tRNA molecules mRNA Growing polypeptide Large subunit Small subunit mRNA mRNA binding site P site A site P A Growing polypeptide tRNA Next amino acid to be added to polypeptide What amino acid sequence is coded by the following segment of a DNA coding strand?
(5) CTA-ACT-AGC-GGG-TCG-CCG (3)
Worked Example 24.2
Predicting the Amino Acid Sequence Transcribed from DNA Strategy The mRNA produced during translation is a copy of the DNA coding strand Each T replaced by U The mRNA has the sequence (5) CUA-ACU-AGC-GGG-UCG-CCG (3)
Worked Example 24.2
Predicting the Amino Acid Sequence Transcribed from DNA Solution Leu-Thr-Ser-Gly-Ser-Pro
Worked Example 24.2
Predicting the Amino Acid Sequence Transcribed from DNA
DNA Sequencing Polymerase Chain Reaction Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of mutations Figure 10.16B mRNA NORMAL GENE BASE SUBSTITUTION BASE DELETION Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala Met Lys Phe Ser Ala Met Lys Leu Ala His Missing Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued 11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued Therapeutic Proteins
The human insulin gene was the first application of recombinant DNA technology. It was incorporated into a bacteria called Escherichia coli.
Insulin produced in this manner eliminated many of the side effects that occurred from the use of pig and cow insulin.
Recombinant technology is used to insert genes into crop and food plants offering many growth advantages. 11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued Nuclear TransplantationCloning an Organism
Clone means to make an exact copy.
Cloning an organism creates a genetic copy of the original organism.
Cloning involves taking nuclear DNA from an adult cell and transplanting it into an egg whose DNA has been removed. 11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued