Basics of Solar Energy: Prepared by

PEC Solar Energy Technology (MEC-2) UET-Taxila
Basics of Solar Energy

Prof. Dr. A. R. El-Ghalban
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Prepared by
University of Engineering and Technology
Taxila, Pakistan

The Sun: Earths Energy Source
The Sun is located about 150x10
9
m from the Earth
at the center of the Solar System.

The Sun generates a large amount of energy due to a
continuous thermonuclear fusion reaction occurring
in its interior.

In this interaction Hydrogen combine to form Helium
and the excess energy is released in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.


The total energy emitted by the Sun per unit time
(Solar luminosity) is L
0
= 3.9x10
26
Watts. The energy
flux at the surface of the Sun is approximately
64 x 10
6
W/m
2
.
The average solar energy flux at the Suns surface,
a distance of r
0
from its center, is given by the Solar
luminosity (L
0
) divided by the area of a sphere with
a radius r
0
:
I
0
= L
0
/4r
0
2

Suns surface temperature is about 5780 K.

Due to the location of the Earth in the solar system ,
a range of temperatures exists close to its surface
makes the Earth a habitable planet.
This temperature range is determined through an
energy balance between the solar radiation
absorbed by the Earth and the energy the Earth
sends back into space.

This process is known as the Earth energy (or
radiation) balance.
Earths internal source of energy, due to radioactive
decay of various elements in its mantel and due to
its warm core, is much smaller (~3x10
-5
times) than
the amount received from the sun.

Solar Flux in Space
The energy flux emitted from the Sun spreads over
an increasing spherical surface as it moves into
space.
Because the area of a sphere increases in
proportion to the square of its radius, the radiative
energy flux from the sun decreases as the inverse
of the square of the distance from the Sun.
The solar fluxes at two different distances from the
Sun, I
1
and I
2
, relate to one another as the inverse
square of their distances from it, r
1
and r
2
, that is:
I
1
/ I
2
= (r
2
/r
1
)
2

Electromagnetic Energy Transfer
Solar radiation is energy, traveling through space as
electromagnetic (EM) wave radiation.
Radiation is a form of energy transfer that does not
require mass exchange or direct contact between
the heat exchanging bodies.
Radiation involves the propagation of EM energy at
the speed of light c* = 3x10
10
cm/s.
The speed of light c*, the frequency of the EM waves
, and its wavelength are linked through the
following relationship: c* =


Blackbody Radiation
A body that emits energy over all frequencies in a
continuous manner is called a blackbody.
Blackbody radiation is a function of temperature
and wavelength.
This dependence is described in Plancks law of
radiation, which relates the EM energy flux emitted
by a blackbody per unit wavelength to the
wavelength and the temperature:
E(T,) = C
1
/(
5
[ exp(C
2
/T

) 1] )

Where C
1
and C
2
are constants is the wavelength in m, and T is the absolute
temperature in K

Blackbody Radiation
Planck's law states a complex relationship between
the energy flux per unit wavelength, the wavelength,
and the temperature. From it we can derive two
more simplified relationship.
Wien law, stating the relationship between the
wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy
flux output by a blackbody
max
(in m) and its
absolute temperature T (in K): .
max
= 2898/T

Blackbody Radiation
Using Wien law and the Earth and Sun average
temperatures 288 and 5780 K, respectively we find
that their
max
correspond to about 10 and 0.5 m.

Stefan-Boltzman law stating the relationship
between absolute temperature and the total energy
flux emitted by a blackbody, over the entire
wavelength range I
b
(in W/m
2
)

I
b
= T
4

where is referred to as the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10
8
W/m
2
K
4


Solar Energy and the Climate System
The planets rotate around the Sun in elliptically
shaped orbits with the sun in one of its foci.
Aphelion is the orbit position farthest from the sun
and perihelion closest.
Each orbit is defined by its mean distance from the
Sun (d), by its eccentricity (e) and by its orientation
in space.

Each planet rotates around its axis, which in
generally inclined with the respect to the orbital
plane as measured by the obliquity angle


The rotation rate around the axis determine the
length of the day and,
The planets orbital rotation rate determine the
length of its year.
Eccentricity results in relatively small variations in
incoming radiation, which are not the main reason
for the seasonality.
Obliquity () is the main reason for seasonality. If
is different from zero, the lengths of day and night
over most of the planets surface are not equal but
for two times during the year, the equinox times.

The difference between the lengths of day and
night is zero on the planets equator and changes
poleward.

The days are longer than the night on the
hemisphere tilting towards the Sun leading to more
incoming Solar energy than in the other
hemisphere.

The times of year when the difference between the
lengths of day and night reach their extreme values
are called solstices.


Latitude
Latitude lines run horizontally, parallel and equally
distant from each other.
Degrees latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 north
and south.

Zero degrees is the equator, the imaginary line which
divides our planet into the northern and southern
hemispheres.
North Pole is 90 north and South Pole and 90 south.
Each degree of latitude is approximately 69 miles
(111 km) apart.


Longitude

Longitude lines (meridians) are vertical, converge at
the poles and are widest at the equator (about 69
miles or 111 km apart).
Zero degrees longitude is located at Greenwich,
England (0).
The degrees continue 180 east and 180 west where
they meet and form the International Date Line in the
Pacific Ocean.

Extraterrestrial Radiation (Solar constant)

Solar constant ( I
o
), is the radiation incident outside
the earth's atmosphere. On average, it is 1367 W/m
2
.
This value varies by 3% as the earth orbits the sun.
I
o
= 1367 * (R
av
/ R)
2
W/m
2

where (R
av
) is the mean sun-earth distance and (R ) is the actual sun-
earth distance depending on the day of the year

Where =2 n / 365 and n is the day of the year. For example,
January 15 is year day 15 and February 15 is year day 46. There are
365 or 366 days in a year depending if the year is a leap year.
) sin( * . ) cos( * .
) sin( * . ) cos( * . .
R
R
AV
| |
| |
2 000077 0 2 000719 0
00128 0 034221 0 0011 1
2
+
+ + + =
|
.
|
\
|

Solar Declination ()

Solar Declination is the angle between the Sun's
rays and Earth's equatorial plane.
(Technically, it is the angle between the Earth-Sun
vector and the equatorial plane.)


Solar Declination
The Declination angle is 23.5 during the Northern
Summer Solstice, and 23.5 during the Southern
Summer Solstice. It is between 23.5 the rest of the
year.
Following equations could be used for calculating
solar declination angle
Where N is the day in the year

Solar Declination

where

For precise calculation the following equation
could be used

Solar Elevation (Sun height) Angle ( )

The solar elevation angle is the elevation angle of
the sun. That is, the angle between the direction of
the sun and the (idealized) horizon.
It can be calculated, to a good approximation, using
the following formula:

Where
s
is the solar elevation angle,
h is the hour angle of the present time ,
is the current sun declination and
is the local latitude

The system of standard time is based on two facts:
Solar Time and Local Standard Time
1. The Earth completes a total rotation on its axis
once every twenty-four hours.
(360 in a day24 hours = 15 an hour)
2. There are 360 of longitude all the way around the
Earth.
The Earth turns 360 in 24 hours, or at a rate of 15
an hour.
Each standard meridian is the center of a time zone.
Each time zone is 15 wide.

The Greenwich Time Zone, for example, is centered
on the Prime Meridian
This time zone is supposed to be 15 wide and
extends from 7 W to 7E.
However, the boundaries of standard time dont
exactly run along meridians. The boundaries have
been changed to fit the borders of countries and
even smaller areas.

The relationship between solar time and local
standard time is required to describe the position of
the sun in local standard time.
Local standard time is the same in the entire time
zone whereas solar time relates to the position of the
sun with respect to the observer.
That difference depends on the exact longitude where
solar time is calculated.

As the earth moves around the sun, solar time
changes slightly with respect to local standard time.
This is mainly related to the conservation of angular
momentum as the earth moves around the sun.
This time difference is called the equation of time and
can be an important factor when determining the
position of the sun for solar energy calculations.
An approximate formula for the equation of time (E
qt
)
in minutes depending upon the location of earth in
its orbit as following;

E
qt
= - 14.2 sin [ (n + 7) / 111] for year day n
between 1 and 106
E
qt
= 4.0 sin [ (n - 106) / 59) for year day n between
107 and 166
E
qt
= - 6.5 sin [( n - 166) / 80) for year day n between
167 and 365

Where T
solar
is the local solar time,
T
ls
is the local standard time,
Longl
ocal
is the longitude of the observer in degrees and
Long
sm
is the longitude for the standard meridian for the observer's time
zone.
To adjust solar time for a longitude one have to add
the value resulted from the time equation and to add
or subtract the amount that the local time is ahead or
behind the clock time for the time zone to the local
time.
T
solar
= T
ls
+ E
qt
/ 60 (Long
local
Long
sm
)/15 hours

Solar hour angle (h)
Where T
solar
is the local solar time
Since the earth rotates approximately once every 24
hours, the hour angle changes by 15 degrees per
hour and moves through 360 degrees over the day.
h = * (12 - T
solar
) / 12 , radians
Typically, the hour angle is defined to be zero at
solar noon, when the sun is highest in the sky.

Solar zenith angle (
s
)
The zenith angle is the opposite angle to the sun
height
s
.
s
= ( 90
s
).
At a sun height of 90, the sun is at the zenith and
the zenith angle is therefore zero.

Sun azimuth (
S
)
The sun azimuth (
S
) is the angle, measured
clockwise, between geographical North and the
point on the horizon directly below the sun.

Sun azimuth (
S
)

(Another definition is sometimes used, whereby the
definition of the sun height remains the same but
the sun azimuth is counted as zero when the sun is
in the South and measured anticlockwise.
Sometimes the symbols of azimuth and sun height
are also interchanged.)

Solar Radiation on Earth Surface
The amount of direct radiation on a horizontal
surface can be calculated by multiplying the direct
normal irradiance times the cosine of the zenith
angle ().

On a surface tilted (T) degrees from the horizontal
and rotated ( ) degrees from the north-south axis,
the direct component on the tilted surface is
determined by multiplying the direct normal
irradiance by the following value for the cosine of
the incidence angle ( ) ;

Solar Radiation on Earth Surface
cos () = sin()sin()cos(T) - sin()cos()sin(T)cos()
+cos()cos(l)cos(T)cos(h)
+cos()sin()sin(T)cos()cos(h)
+cos()sin(T)sin()sin(h)
where
is the latitude of the location
of interest,
is the sun declination and
h is the hour angle .

Thank you

Solar Energy Flux

Earth energy (or radiation) balance.


Solar Flux in Space

Latitude and Longitude

Latitude and Longitude

Earth in Orbits
Distance from Sun d = 150x10
9
m,
eccentricity e = (a-b)/(a+b) = 0.017,
axis tilt = 23.5, Solar Flux (I
0
) = 1367 W/m
2
perihelion (147 million km), aphelion (152 million km).

Earth in Orbits

Earth in Orbits



Blackbody Radiation

Solar Declination (), Elevation ( )
and Zenith ()

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