Tutorial Slides On Optical Fibers

Department of Electrical,
Electronic and Information Enigineering

G. Tartarini Advanced Electromagnetic Transmission Techniques and Devices /
Electromagnetic Technologies for Link Design
Outline of the III Module of the course

Modal propagation of dielectric waveguides
Dielectric slab
Optical Fiber

Transmission characteristics of the optical fiber
Attenuation,
Dispersion
Nonlinear effects
(Course notes: http://campus.unibo.it/)

Application scenarios of optical fiber links

mono-mode
fiber
fiber/copper
mono-mode
fiber
multi-mode
fiber
multi-mode
fiber

IP network
Central
Office
Access Networks
In-Building Networks
Core Network
Network Categories
Wide area
Network
(Links > 50 km)

Metro Area Network
(Links < 50 km)
Access
Network
(Links <
20 km)
(Coaxial
Cable)
(PON)
(Fixed
Wireless
Access)
(Optical Fiber)
Local Area
/ Home Network
(Links < 1 km)
Wide Area Networks
From links
between neghboring
cities up to
long-haul terrestrial
or intercontinental
lines

Huge bandwidth
required (Aggregate
Traffic)


Distances range
from a few to
tens of km.

Limited use
of optical
amplifiers

Typically
no dispersion
compensation
Metropolitan Area Networks
Access Networks

Connections from
a centralized
switching facility
to individual
businesses
and homes

Different
transmission
media:
twisted-pair
copper wires,
coaxial cable,
radio links,
optical fibers
Ex. Passive Optical Network (PON): no active optoelectronic components

Home/In-building Networks
Variety of
services
required
(file sharing,
multi-player
gaming,
video streaming)

Increasing
bandwidth
demand

Necessity to
exploit both wired
and wireless
services
Radio coverage of:
Crowded sites
Non-LOS Areas
(Line Of Sight)

Unit (RAU)
Indoor
RAU
Radio Base
Station (RBS)
Outdoor Remote Antenna
Optical
Fiber
Ex.: Fiber Distributed Antenna Systems
Basic Fiber Optic Communication System
Directly
Modulated
Transmitter
(Based on LED
or LASER)
Input
Electrical
Signal
(Digital
Or
Analog)
Optical
Fibre
Direct Detection
Receiver
(Based on PIN or
APD)
Output
Electrical
Signal
(Digital
Or
Analog)

Advantages of Fiber Optic Transmission
High Bandwidth ( High Bit Rate )

Low Attenuation

Short Dimensions

No interference
Band utilized in optical communications
Sonar
Servo-
mechanisms
Radio
Radar
Infrared
Visible Light
Ultraviolet
X Rays
Gamma
Rays
Cellular
Telephones
TV
1 Mm 1 km 1 m 1 mm 1 nm 1 m
1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz 10
15
Hz 10
18
Hz
(f)
()
Frequency Band utilized in Optical Communications
Bandwidth expressed as Af (or A): Fixed Grid
From ITU-T Recommendation G-692: Fixed grid.
Nominal Frequencies in C band (1528-1561 nm):
81 carriers separated by Af=50 GHz starting from 196.1 THz

It is often said that in the C band it is A = 0.4nm, but
The interval A is not constant. It goes from 0.389 nm to 0.405 nm
The relationship to be considered is
196.1 THz
196.05 THz
192.1 THz
1528.77 nm
1560.61 nm
f c f df d A = A = A / /
2

Bandwidth expressed as Af : Flexible Grid
From ITU-T Recommendation G-694: Flexible grid

Fixed reference frequency: 193.1 THz.
Central frequencies are spaced by an integer multiple of 6.25 GHz.
For a certain channel: integer n indicates the central frequency
(193.1 + n*0.0625) THz
Width of a certain channel: integer m times 12.5 GHz.
More flexibility in the bandwidth usable by the signals
More efficiency in the global use of the bandwidth
Example:
n=+3,
m=4
193.1 THz Center frequency:
(193.1 + 3*0.0625) THz
Width: 4*12.5=50 GHz
Review on dB,dBm, dB(Hz), etc.
Attenuation : P
1
/P
2

Attenuation|
Logarithmic units
= 10 log
10
(P
1
/P
2
) (dB)
Gain/Loss: P
2
/P
1

Gain/Loss|
Logarithmic units
= 10 log
10
(P
2
/P
1
) (dB)
etc.
P
1

P
2

Adimensional quantities dB:
Note : Attenuation
FIBER
=10
oL/10
Attenuation
FIBER
|
Logarithmic units
=oL (dB) [o]=[dB/km]
Power Level|
Logarithmic units
: dB(W), dB(mW) [or dBm], etc
Bandwidth|
Logarithmic units
: dB (Hz)
Temperature|
Logarithmic units
: dB (K)
etc.
Non-Adimensional quantities (W, Hz ) dB(W), dB(Hz)
The Optical Transmission Channel
Electromagnetic Fundamentals to be recalled:
Plane waves propagation in homogeneous media
Continuity Conditions / Reflection Coefficients of the
electromagnetic field
Dielectric slab: analythical resolution
From the dielectric slab to the optical fiber
Transmission characteristics
Attenuation
Dispersion
Non linearities (not treated here)
The Dielectric Slab: Description
x
z
(n
2
)
(n
1
)
0
...
=
c
c
y
y
(x=d)
(x=-d)
(n
2
)
Waveguide invariant
in the y and z directions.

Central layer
of refraction index n
1
and
of thickness 2d

Two external Layers
of refraction indexes n
2
< n
1
,
infinitely extended in the
+x and x directions.
The field is invariant in the y direction

The field propagates in the z direction
z j z j
(x)e H (x)e E (x,z) (x,z)
| |
= , H , E
Procedure followed to find Slab guided modes
1. Resolution of Maxwells Equations in the three regions
Plane Wave solutions in the three regions
2. Imposition of
continuity conditions of at the interfaces through either:

Coefficients I
TE
and I
TM

+ consistency condition
on the equiphase planes

Achievement of the Characteristic Equation (TE/TM, even/odd)
3. Resolution of the Characteristic Equation
Modes propagation constant
Modes amplitude behavior
Creation and Resolution of a
Homogeneous linear System

y y z z
H E H E , , ,
z j
z j
e x (x,z)
e x (x,z)
|
|
=
=
) (
) (
H
E
H
E
x
z
n
2

n
1

n
2

y
Determination of E
z
, H
z
(Equation of Helmholtz):

Determination of E
t
, H
t
(Equations of Maxwell):
) (
) (
1
H
) (
) (
1
E
2 2
0
2 2
0
z t i z t
i
t
z t z t
i
t
E z j H j
k n
H z j E j
k n
V + V
=
V V
=
ec |
|
e |
|
Dielectric Slab: Resolution of Maxwell Equations
| |
| | 0 ) ( ) (
0 E
E
E ) (
E
E ) ( E
2
2
2
2 2
0
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
2 2
0
2
2
2
0
2
= + = + = + V
= + = + = + V
z xi
z
z i
z
z i z
z xi
z
z i
z
z i z
H k
dx
H d
H k n
dx
H d
H k n H
k
dx
d
k n
dx
d
k n
|
|
In the present cas (Cartesian Coordinates) (1.3), (1.4) become:
dx
dE
k n
n j
H
dx
dH
k n
j
H
dx
dH
k n
j
E
dx
dE
k n
j
E
z
i
i
y
z
i
x
z
i
y
z
i
x
2 2
0
2
0
2 2
0
2 2
0
2 2
0
) (
) (
) (
) (
|
ec
|
|
|
e
|
|
=
It is possible to separate the modes into TE (E
z
, E
x
, H
y
=0) and TM (H
z
, H
x
, E
y
=0)
Transversal field components in cartesian coordinates
| |
| |
z j
xi xi z
z j
xi xi z
e x k A x k A H
e x k A x k A E
|
|
+ =
+ =
) sen( ) cos(
) sen( ) cos(
4 3
2 1
The solutions of (1.1), (1.2) can be expressed in the form:
which will represent the field in the central region
Alternatively, they can be expressed in the form:
( )
( )
z j z z
z
z j z z
z
e e C e C H
e e C e C E
i i
i i
|
|

+ =
+ =
4 3
2 1
which will represent the field in the central region, and where it is:
2
0
2
2 2
) ( k n k
i xi i
= = |
Dielectric slab: Seeking guided modes
z j
x z
z j
x z
z j
x z
z j
x z
e x k A H
e x k A H
e x k A E
e x k A E
|
|
|
|
=
=
=
=
) sen(
) cos(
) sen(
) cos(
1 4
1 3
1 2
1 1
For the linearity of (1.1)(1.4) it is possible to consider separately the cases when
In the central medium there is only one non-zero term:
(modes TM odd
(modes TM even)
(modes TE odd)
(modes TE even)
The set of guided modes is given by the union of these four subsets of these modes.
Separation into TE/TM, even/odd modes
) cos(
) cos(
) sen(
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
x k A
k
j H
x k A
k
j
E
x k A H
x
x
x
x
x
y
x z
|
e
=
=
=
x
x
x
y
x
z
De j H
De
j
E
De H
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
3
e
=
=
=
x
z
n
2

n
1

n
2

y
x
x
x
y
x
z
Ce j H
Ce
j
E
Ce H
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
=
=
TE even modes: Expression of the field components
Imposing the continuity conditions of E
y
, H
z
for x=d and x=-d, we have:
d d k tg d k
A
C
k
d k e
d k e
d k
k
A
e
C
d E d E
d k
k
A
e
C
d E d E
C D
d k A De d H d H
d k A Ce d H d H
x x
x
x
d
x
d
x
x
d
y y
x
x
d
y y
x
d
z z
x
d
z z
2 1 1
1
1
2
1
1
1 2
1 3
1
1 2
1 2
1 3 1
1 1 2
) ( 0 ) cos(
) sen(
) cos( ) ( ) (
) cos( ) ( ) (
) sen( ) ( ) (
) sen( ) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
= =
=
= =
= =
Continuity Conditions
u
w
t/2 t 3t/2
Curve
where v is the
Normalized Frequency:
2
2
2
1 0
2
2
2
1
) ( ) (
n n d
d d k v
x
=
= + =
|
Odd Modes
( )
( ) ) ( cot ) cot( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 2
1 1 2
modes odd
even modes
u u w d k d k d
u tg u w d k tg d k d
x x
x x
= =
= =
2
1
2
2
) ( d k v d
x
=
Resolution of the Characteristic Equation: TE case
From the characteristic equation we have:
Moreover, it must be:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2
2
1
2
0
2
2
2
1
) ( v w u n n d d d k
x
= + = + |
Even Modes
Exploiting the relations:

We can solve numerically
the equation (e.g. TE case with m=0):

For e~0 it is |~n
2
|
0
. For e it is |~n
1
|
0
.
2
0 2
2
2
2 2
0 1 1
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
d n d d
d d n d k
x
| |
| |
=
=
] ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
0 1
2 2
0 1
2
0 2
2
d d n tg d d n d n d | | | | | | =
|
e
1 0 0 1
n n c e | =
2 0 0 2
n n c e | =
|(e)
...

Dispersion curves |(e): TE case
m=0
(TE
0
)
m=1
(TE
1
)

The following relations are
expoited:

The plot is more readable
The curves can be referred to waveguides different from each other
Only one TE mode propagates when it is 0<v<t / 2
2
2
2
1 0
2
0 2
2
0 1
2
0 2
2
) ( ) (
) (
n n d k v
k n k n
k n
b
=
=
|
b
v
...
1
Normalized Dispersion Curves b(v) : TE case
t / 2 0
(TE
0
)
(TE
1
)

Behavior of |E
y
| for the modes TE
m
(m even)
x
z
d
-d
|E
y1
|
Ex. mode TE
0

x
z
d
-d
|E
y1
|
Ex. mode TE
2

( ) ( ) x k E e x k E z x
x y
z j
x y y 1 1 1 1 1
cos cos ) , ( = =
|
E
In the central layer
the expression is given by
2 2 2
0
1 1
t t t
s s s s x k d k
x x
2
3
2
3
2
3
1 1
t t t
t s s s s x k d k
x x
Behavior of |E
y
| for the modes TE
m
(m odd)
x
z
d
-d
|E
y1
|
Ex. mode TE
1

x
z
d
-d
|E
y1
|
Ex. mode TE
3

( ) ( ) x k E e x k E z x
x y
z j
x y y 1 1 1 1 1
sin sin ) , ( = =
|
E
t t t
t
s s s s x k d k
x x 1 1
2
t t t
t
2 2 2
2
3
1 1
s s s s x k d k
x x
In general |E
y
| of mode TE
m
assumes m times the `0` value for d x d s s
u
w
t/2 t 3t/2
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( cot ) / ( ), ( cot
) ( ) / ( ), (
2
1 2
2
1 2
odd odd
even even
TM u u n n w TE u u w
TM u tg u n n w TE u tg u w
= =
= =
Resolution of TE and TM Characteristic Equations
From the characteristic equation we have:
Moreover, it must be:
TE
0
TM
0
TM
1
TE
1
TM
2
TE
2
TM
3
TE
3
The graphic solution gives the
values of
d w d k u
x 2 1
, = =
2 2
u v w =
of the guided modes for a given value
of the normalized frequency:
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1 0
) / ( n n d c n n d v = = e |
Exploiting again the relations:

We can solve numerically
the equation to find |(e)
(e.g. TM case with m=0):

and add the TM dispersion curves to the TE ones
2
0 2
2
2
2 2
0 1 1
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
d n d d
d d n d k
x
| |
| |
=
=
( ) ] ) ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( /
) ( ) (
2 2
0 1
2 2
0 1
2
1 2
2
0 2
2
d d n tg d d n n n
d n d
| | | |
| |
=
=
|
e
1 0
0 1
n
n
c e
|
=
=
2 0
0 2
n
n
c e
|
=
=
...
Dispersion curves |(e): TE and TM case
(TE
0
)
(TE
1
)
(TM
0
)
(TM
1
)

The following relations are
expoited:

The plot is more readable
The curves can be referred to waveguides different from each other
Only one TE and one TM mode propagate when it is 0<v<t / 2
2
2
2
1 0
2
0 2
2
0 1
2
0 2
2
) ( ) (
) (
n n d k v
k n k n
k n
b
=
=
|
b
v
...
1
TE and TM normalized Dispersion Curves b(v)
t / 2 0
(TE
0
)
(TE
1
)

(TM
0
)
(TM
1
)
Behavior of |H
y
| for the modes TM
m
(m even)
x
z
d
-d
|H
y1
|
Ex. mode TM
0

x
z
d
-d
|H
y1
|
Ex. mode TM
2

( ) ( ) x k H e x k H z x
x y
z j
x y y 1 1 1 1 1
cos cos ) , ( = =
|
H
2 2 2
0
1 1
t t t
s s s s x k d k
x x
2
3
2
3
2
3
1 1
t t t
t s s s s x k d k
x x
Behavior of |H
y
| for the modes TM
m
(m odd)
x
z
d
-d
|H
y1
|
Ex. mode TM
1

x
z
d
-d
|H
y1
|
Ex. mode TM
3

( ) ( ) x k H e x k H z x
x y
z j
x y y 1 1 1 1 1
sin sin ) , ( = =
|
H
t t t
t
s s s s x k d k
x x 1 1
2
t t t
t
2 2 2
2
3
1 1
s s s s x k d k
x x
In general |H
y
| of mode TM
m
assumes m times the `0` value for d x d s s
Guided Modes and Radiation Modes
2 2
0 1
2
1
) ( | | = n k
x
2
|
2
2
2 2
0 2
2
2
) ( | | = = n k
x
2
0 1
) ( | n
2
0 2
) ( | n
0
0
0
Plane
waves
propagating
along z
Plane
waves
propagating
along x
in the
central
layer
Plane
waves
propagating
along x
in the
outer
layers
Plane
waves
attenuating
along z
Plane
waves
attenuating along x
in the outer layers
}
}
}
Guided
Modes
Radiation
modes
propagating
along z
Radiation
modes
attenuating
along z
The set of guided and radiation modes forms a Complete Set of Solutions of Maxwells
Equations for the dielectric slab Any field of the slab can be expressed as a linear
combination of these modes
The Optical Fiber: Classification
Silica
Fibres
Plastic
Fibres
Single Mode
Multimode
Multimode
Graded
Index
Step
Index
Step
Index
Graded
Index
Step
Index
Standard
Dispersion
Shifted

P
E
R
F
O
R
M
A
N
C
E
S

&

C
O
S
T
S
Long Distance
Connections
In-Building,
Local Area
Connections
Home
Connections
}
}
}
Core: SiO
2
+ GeO
2

10 m (Single Mode),
50, 62.5 m (Multi Mode),
n
1
~ 1.443

Cladding: SiO
2

125 m
n
2
~ 1.44

Primary Coating
400 m

Secondary Coating
1 mm
Silica Optical Fibres
Core:
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA),
Perfluorinate (CYTOP),
62.5 m 980 m
n
1
~ 1.49

Cladding: Other Polymeric
material
250 m 1 mm
n
2
~ 1.41

External coating
~2 mm
Plastic Optical Fibers
n
1
>n
2

r
|
n
2
n
1
a

1. Resolution of Maxwells Equations in the three regions
Solutions in terms of Bessel functions in the three
regions

2. Imposition of
continuity conditions of at the
interface r =a
Homogeneous Linear System to be solved
Achievement of the Characteristic Equation (TE/TM,
even/odd)

3. Resolution of the Characteristic Equation
Modes propagation constant
Modes amplitude behavior

H E H E , , ,
z z
) (e |
Procedure to find Optical Fiber Guided Modes
z j
z z r r
z j
z j
z z r r
z j
e i H i H i H e r ,z) (r
e i E i E i E e r ,z) (r
|

|
|

|
| |
| |

+ + = =
+ + = =
)

( ) , ( ,
)

( ) , ( ,
H
E
H
E
Evaluation of E
z
, H
z
:
| |
| | 0 ) (
0 ) (
2 2
0
2
2 2
0
2
= + V
= + V
z i z
z i z
H n H
E n E
| |
| |
Evaluation of E
t
, H
t
:
)
(
) (
1

)
(
) (
1

2 2
0
2 2
0
z t z i z t
i
r r
t
z t z z t
i
r r
t
E i j H j
k n
i H i H
H i j E j
k n
i E i E
V + V
= + =
V V
= + =
ec |
|
e |
|

H
E
r
|
n
2
n
1
(2.1)
(2.2)
Solving Procedure of Maxwells Equations
(i=1 for core
i=2 for cladding)
Imposing the Continuity Condition the Characteristic Equation is obtained
Approximating A = (n
1
2
- n
2
2
) / (2 n
1
2
) ~ 0 but (A )
1/2
> 0, it becomes:
1 1 1 2
2 1
2 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
m t m
t
m m t
J k a K a
a k a
K a J k a

=
J
m
( ) = Bessel Function of First Kind of order m
K
m
( ) = Modified Bessel Function of Second Kind of order m

Either upper or lower signs can be chosen

In this way Linearly Polarized (LP
mn
) modes are found

Subscript m: expresses the azimuthal periodicity
Subscript n: expresses the radial dependence

Eq. (2.3) can be solved graphically, imposing the condition u
2
+w
2
=v
2

(2.3)
Expression of the Characteristic Equation
where
Review on Bessel Functions of First Kind
) (
0
x J
) (
1
x J
Zeros of J
0
(x):
2.4048
5.5201
8.6537

Zeros of J
1
(x):
3.8317
7.0156
10.1735

Review on Modified Bessel Functions of Second Kind
) (
0
x K
) (
1
x K
All K
m
(x) tend to
for x0 and fall
exponentially
for increasing x.

The ratio K
m
(x)/ K
m+1
(x)
tend to 1 for increasing x

Both ratios
x*K
m
(x)/ K
m+1
(x) and
x*K
m+1
(x)/ K
m
(x)
are equal to 0
for x=0 and
tend to x for increasing x

2 4 6 8 10
) ) ( (
) ) ( (
) (
2
1
2
0
2
1
2
1 2
1
2
a k v K
a k v K
a k v
t
t
t
) (
) (
1 0
1 1
1
a k J
a k J
a k
t
t
t
LP
01

LP
02

LP
03

k
t1
a
LP
mn
modes with m=0: finding k
t1
|
2 4 6 8 10
2 2
0 1 2 2
1
2 2
1 1
( ( ) )
( )
( ( ) )
t
t
t
K v k a
v k a
K v k a
0 1
1
1 1
( )
( )
t
t
t
J k a
k a
J k a
LP
11

LP
12

LP
13

k
t1
a
LP
mn
modes with m=1: finding k
t1
|
2
2
2
1 0
n n a v = |
2
2
2
0
2
1
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
n n
n
b
| |
| |
=
Optical Fiber: Normalized Dispersion Curves
Behaviors similar
to the ones of the
dielectric slab
Where:
J
m
( ) = Bessel Function of First Kind of order m
K
m
( ) = Modified Bessel Function of Second Kind of order m
2
0 2
2
2
2
2
2
0 1
2
1
| |
| |
n
n k
t
=
=
Expressions of the main transversal
components (Ey, Hx) or (Ex, Hy)
r
|
n
2
n
1
Ey =
J
m
(k
t1
r)[A
1
cos(m|)+A
2
sin(m|)]e
j|z
r < a

K
m
(
2
r)[B
1
cos(m|)+B
2
sin(m|)]e
j|z
r > a

{
Hx =
J
m
(k
t1
r)[C
1
cos(m|)+C
2
sin(m|)]e
j|z
r < a

K
m
(
2
r)[D
1
cos(m|)+D
2
sin(m|)]e
j|z
r > a

{
Linearly Polarized modes which are obtained utilizing the condition A<<1 are
called in this manner because:
They are quasi-TEM ( E
z
<<|E
t
| ) modes.
Each one of them is actually formed by the superposition of degenerate modes
which have E
t
polarized linearly and directed along the direction x or along the
direction y
Let us take E
t
polarized along y. In general, E
y
of mode LP
mn
:
has 2m maxima for | which goes from 0 to 2t
has n maxima for r which goes from 0 to a

Mode LP
01

Mode LP
11

Behavior of Modes Amplitude
Modes LP
0n
are two times degenerate: they can have E
t
= E
x
or E
t
=E
y

x
y
LP
01

LP
02

Modes LP
mn
are 4 times degenerate:
They can have E
t
= E
x
or E
t
=E
y

They can have azimuthal dependence cos(m|) or sen(m|)

LP
11

|
x
y
Degeneration of LP modes
Attenuation in Optical Fibers

Source of
Information
Fiber Optic
Cable
Electrical
Signal
Destination
Optical
Source
Optical
Detector
Optical
Receiver
Intrinsic absorption

Extrinsic Absorption

Linear Diffusion

Attenuation in the Optical Fibers

Material: SiO2, SiO2+GeO2, SiO2+F,
At ~0.1 m: electronic transitions
At ~9. m: photon interactions
with material molecular vibrations
Rayleigh Scattering: a part of the optical power is transferred from the propagation
Modes to other modes, including radiation modes, at the same frequency.
It is due to slight inhomogeneities of the crystal over distances shorter than 1 m
(Due to impurities)
Interactions with bond vibrations of
OH- ion
Attenuation in SiO
2
Fibers (SMF and MMF)
5
4
3
2
1
0.8 0.9
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
o
(dB/km)
(m)
Rayleigh Scattering
OH
-
ion
Absorption
(This peak can
be reduced if
the fabrication
procedure is
improved)
Infrared
absorption
Ultraviolet
Absorption
Classical Transmission Windows

1
2 3
5
4
3
2
1
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
o
(dB/km)
(m)
I window
~0.8 m
II window
~1.3 m
III window
~ 1.55 m
~0.2
dB/km
~0.4
dB/km
Recent Definition of new Transmission Windows
I window
0.8 m < <0.9 m
II window
1.26 m <1.36 m
C Band
1.53 m < <
<1.565 m
5 S
U L
1
2
C
5
4
3
2
1
0.8 0.9
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
o
(dB/km)
(m)
1.6 1.7
New (V) window
1.36 m <1.46 m
L Band
1.565 m < <
<1.625 m
U Band
1.625 m < <
<1.675 m
S Band
1.46 m < <
<1.53 m
Attenuation in Plastic Optical Fibers

500
400
300
200
100
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
o
(dB/km)
(m)
250
200
150
100
50
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.2
o
(dB/km)
(m)
Step-Index PMMA Graded-Index in Perfluorinated Polymer
SiO
2
Fibre

Attenuation in Optical Fibres: Conclusions

Utilizing appropriate optical transmission bands (III window, II window, etc),
the attenuation is very low (o < 0.5 dB/km).

Long-distance links (unrepeatered spans of tens of km)
Metropolitan networks
In-Building networks
The high attenuation (at present o > 30 dB/km) is one of the limiting factors for
POF links, which at present do not exceed tens or a very few hundreds of meters
of length.

Home networks
Connections inside cars, trains, ships, etc
Plastic Fibre
Coupling Losses A
C1
due to Numerical Aperture:
1. Numerical Aperture of the Fibre

( )
2
2
2
1
sin n n NA
MF Fibre
= = u
Incindent rays which remain inside the Acceptance
Cone of semi-aperture u
MF
are guided inside the
fibre
SMF : NA
Fibra
~0.15
MMF : NA
Fibra
~0.30
PMMF : NA
Fibra
~0.50
( )
MS Source
NA u sin =
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
<
2
10 1
log 10
Fibre
Source
C
Source Fibre
NA
NA
A
NA NA If
For a fixed NA
Source
multimodal fibres have lower values of A
C1
with
respect to single mode ones
Coupling Losses A
C1
due to Numerical Aperture:
2. Numerical Aperture of the Source

Source
Fibre
D
Core
D
Source
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= <
2
10 2
log 10
Fibre
Source
C Source Core
D
D
A D D If
SMF : D
Core
~10 m
MMF : D
core
~50-62.5 m
PMMF : D
core
~62.5-980 m
For a fixed D
Source
multimodal fibers
exhibit lower A
C2
values with respect to
the single mode ones
Coupling Losses A
C2
due to Source Emitting Area:
Source Equivalent Diameter

x(t)
t
t
o
Rms puse width
(rms = root mean square)
Average pulse arrival time
( )
1/ 2
2
1 1
( ) , ( )
( ) ( )
t tx t dt t t x t dt
x t dt x t dt
o

| |
|
|
= =
|
|
\ .
} }
} }
Definitions referred to a pulse signal

Dispersion in Optical Fibres

Source of
Information
Fiber Optic
cable
Electrical
Signal
Destination
Optical
Source
Optical
Detector
Optical
Receiver
Types of Dispersion in Optical Fibres

Exists only in the MMF.

Each mode of the fiber carries with a different group velocity vg a
portion of the modulating signal
Exists both in SMF and in MMF.

Each portion of the signal spectrum (wave packet) travels with a
different vg.
Exists in SMF, can be neglected in MMF.

The signal is divided between the two degenerate x-polarized and
y-polarized LP
01
modes. These modes ideally should have the
same vg, but in practice exhibit different vgs.
Intermodal
Dispersion
Chromatic
Dispersion
Polarization
Mode
Dispersion
Dispersion in few words

The signal and/or its spectrum, exhibit an undesired subdivision in different portions
Which travel with different group velocities vg. The complete denomination of the
phenomenon is:

Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD)
Limitations at the Bit Rate of the link in case of digital transmission
Limitations at the Pass Band of the link in case of analog transmission
Consequences
Summarizing:
Intermodal Dispersion
u=k
t1
a
Normalized frequency v high

u ~ 2.4048, 3.8317,5.1356,,
That is, k
t1,mn
is independent from v from e

For mode LP
01
it is k
t1,01
= 2.4048/(a)
For mode LP
11
it is k
t1,11
= 3.8317/(a)
For mode LP
21
it is k
t1,21
= 5.1356/(a)
2 2
0 1 2 2
1
2 2
1 1
( ( ) )
( )
( ( ) )
t
t
t
K v k a
v k a
K v k a
k
t1,01
a =2.4048
k
t1,11
a = 3.8317
k
t1,21
a = 5.1356

( )
( ) ( )
mn g
mn
mn mn t
mn t
sen
n
c
d
d
v
sen c
n
n
n
k
n
d
d
k n
u
|
e
u
u
c
c e
c
e
|
c e |
1
1
2
0 1
2
1 0
2
2
,
2
1 0
2
,
2
1 0
2
cos 1
1
= =
=
=
=

n
1
|
0

|
k
t1,mn
n
1

n
2

n
2

u
mn

For the fundamental mode it is v
g
= (c/n
1
) [1- (t/2a)
2
/(n
1
k
0
)
2
]
1/2
~ c/n
1

For the mode at cut-off it is sen u
mn
=n
2
/n
1
v
g
~ (c n
2
/n
1
2
)

For a span of length L the maximum difference between the arrival times is:
At=Ln
1
/c(n
1
/n
2
-1)~Ln
1
A/c
Computation of v
g
as de/d|

The same result can be obtained through geometrical optics:

At
AB
= n
1
L
i
A/c
At = n
1
{E L
i
}A/c=n
1
LA/c
L
i

n
1

n
2

u
c

A
B
Computation of v
g
through geometrical optics

Estimation of the transmittable bit rate:
At < T
B
that is B
r
<1/At (often it is chosen B
r
<0.2/At )

Product Band x Distance (or Bit Rate x Distance):
B L= B
r
L

~ (Mbit/sec) Km
t
P P
z
t
Initial pulse duration (rms): t
0

Final duration: t
0
+At ~ At
L
Pulse spreading and Bit rate
n(r)
(n
2
)
B
With the optimum value of o (o ~ 2) it is:
At~(n
1
LA/c) (A/2)
B L=B
r
L

~ (Gbit/sec) Km
a
n( r )=
n
1
[1-2A(r/a)
o
]
1/2
if

r<a

n
2
if r>a

A
Graded Index Multimode Fiber
Product Band x Distance

The effect of intermodal dispersion is represented by the
Product Band x Distance (~ Bit Rate x Distance)
Typical values:
Plastic Fibres
Step-Index
Graded-Index
Silica Fibres ~800-1500 MHz Km ~tens of MHz Km
~200-300 MHz Km
~10-20 MHz Km

Waveguide Dispersion

The behavior of | is non linear
with e due to the presence of the
two asymptotes |=n
2
k
0
and |=n
1
k
0

Material Dispersion

The fact that n
1
=n
1
(e) and n
2
=n
2
(e),
introduces a further cause of non linear
dependence of | with e.

e
|
1 0 0 1
n k n c e =
2 0 0 2
n k n c e =
|(e)
...
|
1 0 0 1
n k n c e =
2 0 0 2
n k n c e =
...
e
...
Chromatic Dispersion: main causes
Reduction of peak value and
increase of pulse duration
Limitation to the signal bit-rate
Digital Modulating Signal Analog Modulating Signal
Distortion of the signal
Limitation of the pass band
Numerical evaluation of distortion
Effects of Chromatic Dispersion

The harmonic components (WavePackets) which constitute the spectrum of the
Modulating signal arrive to destination with different delays
The Cromatic Dispersion is presnt also in the MMF but it can be often
neglected with respect to intermodal dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion expressed in

(
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
km nm
psec

d
d
d
vg
d
D
g
1
Enlargement of a pulse
for one km of fiber length
for 1 THz of bandwidth
of the modulated signal.
t
g
t
g
=
v
g
-
1

(
n
s
e
c
/
m
)

4.878
4.875
D
A
Minimum of t
g
Zero of D
A
(
km nm
psec
(
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
km THz
psec

e
t
e
e
d
d
d
vg
d
D
g
1
Enlargement of a pulse
for one km of fiber length
for 1 THz of bandwidth
of the modulated signal.
t
g
t
g
=
v
g
-
1

(
n
s
e
c
/
m
)

4.878
4.875
D
Ae
Minimum of t
g
Zero of D
Ae
Chromatic Dispersion expressed in

(
km THz
psec
Normalized group delay:

Group velocity: v
g
=1/ t
g

Dispersion:

~
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
... ) 2 (
2
1
) 2 (
1
t
t
|
t
e
d
n d
c df
n d
f
df
dn
c df
d
D = = + = =
A
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
... ) 2 (
1
2
1
|
t d
n d
c df
n d
f
df
dn
c df
d
D
f
= = + = =
A
2
2
2
1
|
t
d
n d
c df
d
d
d
D = =
A
Material Dispersion in an homogeneous medium
df
d
g
|
t
t
) 2 (
1
~
=
3
2
0
5
2
2
0
4
2
0
3
3
0 2
2
0 1 0 0
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
l
C
l
C
l
C
C C C n
+ + + =

where:

C
0
=1.4508554
C
1
=-3.1268e-3 m
-2

C
2
=-3.81e-5 m
-3

C
3
=3.027e-3 m
2

C
4
=-7.79e-5 m
4

C
5
=1.8e-6 m
6

l=.035 m
2

(
0
in m)
Behavior of n() for pure silica
Behaviors of and for pure silica
d dn/
2 2
/ d n d
For ~1.3 mm it is (Zero Material Dispersion)

The behaviors are similar for doped silica
0
2
2
=
d
n d
Ex. Of Material Dispersion: the RainBow

b
180-2(90-2b+a)=4b-2a
a
b
b
b
a
(180-4b)/2=
=90-2b
Sun at horizon horizontal rays
Rays all possible angles -90<a<90
Visible from ground: 0<a<90
n(0.400)= 1.34451; (violet)
n(0.425)= 1.34235; (indigo)
n(0.450)= 1.34055;
n(0.475)= 1.33903; (light blue)
n(0.500)= 1.33772;
n(0.525)= 1.33659; (green )
n(0.550)= 1.33560;
n(0.575)= 1.33472; (yellow)
n(0.600)= 1.33393;
n(0.625)= 1.33322; (orange)
n(0.650)= 1.33257;
n(0.675)= 1.33197;
n(0.700)= 1.33141; (red)
arcsin(1/n( )*sin(a)) b =
For each a, there is a different reflection
Angle with respect to the horizontal:
4 2 b a where:
Rainbow: behavior of reflection angles

0 20 40 60 80 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
Values of a around 60 degrees reflection angles very close to each other
Intensity maximum.
50 55 60 65 70
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Angle a (degrees)
Angle
4b-2a
(degrees)
The angle of the maximum varies with : Red: 42.3 degrees, Violet: 40.4 degrees
Standard Fibres ITU-T G.652 e G.653

G.652 : Standard Single Mode Fiber
Most used type of SMF
Dispersion is zero for ~1.3 m
G.653 : Dispersion Shifted Fiber
More expensive, less used
Dispersion is zero for ~1.55 m
(III wndow C Band)
( )
( )
(
A
A
A
=
f t
f t
f E
t t x
t
t
e
sin
cos ) 0 , (
0
0
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
=
L
d
d
t f
L
d
d
t f
f E
L t L t x
0
0
0
sin
cos ) , (
0
0
e
e
e
e
|
t
e
|
t
| e
) 0 , (t x
t
) , ( L t x
t
( ) | | L f j L f H | ~ exp ) , (
Chromatic Dispersion: Wave Packet
f A
f
0
f
0
f
2 /
0
E
) 0 , ( ) 0 , ( f X f X =
| | L f L f X Arg ) ( ) , ( | =
f
0
f
0
f
f
0
f
0
f
2 /
0
E
) , ( L f X
( ) F
( )
1 -
F
( ) | | L f j
L f H
| ~
~
exp
) , (
) 0 , (t x
t
t
0
) , ( L t x
...
t
0
+

At
t
) 0 , ( ) 0 , ( f X f X =
0
f
0
f
f
| |
L f
L f X Arg
) (
) , (
| =
=
) , ( L f X
0
f
0
f
f
f
Chromatic Dispersion: Finite Bandwidth Signals
( ) F
( )
1 -
F
( ) t f e E t x
T
t
0
2
0
2 cos ) 0 , (
2
0
2
t
=
T
0
= rms pulse width
t
) 0 , (t x
0
E
0
88 . 0 E
T
0

Chromatic Dispersion: Gaussian Pulse for z=0
) 2 cos(
) 2 (
1
) , (
0 0
)
) 2 (
1
( 2
)
2
1
(
2
2
2
2
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
0
2
z t f e
z
df
d
j T
T
A t z A
z
df
d
j T
z
df
d
t
| t
|
t
|
t
|
t

+
=
+
t
) , ( t z A
t
X(f,0)
Multiplication by
) ( f H
fibre
( ) t f
e E
t x
T
t
0
2
0
2 cos
) 0 , (
2
0
2
t
=
=
t
) , 0 ( t A
Chromatic Dispersion: Gaussian Pulse for z>0
X(f,z)
( ) F
( )
1 -
F
0
1
T
f << A
Optical source with low linewidth ( ):
2
2
2
2
0
2
0
)
) 2 (
1 1
( ) ( z
df
d
T
T z T
|
t
+ =
Optical source with linewidth not to be neglected ( ):
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
0
)
2
1
( )
) 2 (
1 1
( ) ( z
df
d
f z
df
d
T
T z T
|
t
|
t
A + + =
0
1
T
f > A
2 2
2
2
2
0
2
0
)
2
1
( )
) 2 (
1 1
( ) ( z
df
d
d
d
z
df
d
T
T z T
|
t
|
t
A + + =
Chromatic Dispersion: rms pulse width for z>0
Influence of dispersion on the Bit Rate
Rule usually adopted :
5
) (
BIT
t
z T s
) (
2 . 0
z T
B
r
s
Optical source with low linewidth ( ):
2
0
2
0
)
1
( ) ( z D
T
T z T
e A
+ =
Optical source with linewidth not to be neglected ( ):
0
1
T
f << A
0
1
T
f >> A
z D z
df
d
d
d
z T
|
t
A
A = A
2
1
~ ) (
z D
B
r
A
A
s
2 . 0
Minimum value for
z D T
e A
=
0
z D
B
r
e A
2
2 . 0
Use of Dispersion Compensating
Fibers (DCF)

Use of Gratings
(Ex. Fiber Bragg Gratings FBG)

Use of Soliton Propagation
(exploiting the nonlinearities of the fiber)
Chromatic Dispersion: Counter measures

(SMF +D) (DCF -D)
(SMF +D) (SMF +D)
(FBG D)
t
t
Through a relatively high doping of GeO
2
it is possible to abtain a
negative value of D [ps/(nm km)]
Dispersion compensating Fibers
L
1
(es G652)
L
2
<L
1
(DCF)
t
t
t
z
Not considering the fiber losses, the
transfer function is:
G(f) = exp[j(|
G652
L
1
+|
DCF
L
2
]

Ex. for = 1550 nm
assuming T(z)~D o
z, it is:
Pulse enlargement: D
G652 1550
o
L
1
Compression due to the DCF: -D
DCF 1550
o
L
2
It must then be: D
DCF
= - (L
1
/L
2
)D
G652 1550

Each channel needs a slightly different compensation
D
G652

(m)
1.3 1.55
(m)
Spettro
WDM
In the band B it is:

D
G652 B
~ D(
0
) + (dD/d) (
0
)

It must then be:

D
DCF B
= -(L
1
/L
2
) D
G652 B

=
-(L
1
/L
2
) D(
0
) -(L
1
/L
2
) (dD/d) (
0
)

B
0

1

D
DCF

(m)
Dispersion compensating Fibers and WDM signals
Pulse Enlargement per unit bandwidth
It is represented the quantity

(ps/nm)
z
z
L
1
L
2
L
1
L
2
L
1
Channel 1 WDM
Channel i WDM
Channel N WDM
Ideal Case
Real Case
}
z
d D
0
) ( , ,
}
z
d D
0
) ( , ,
}
z
d D
0
) ( , ,
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Ideal Fiber
x
y
The single mode fiber is actually bimodal!
The fundamental mode (LP
01
) is indeed present in the two polarizations x and y
Perfectly circular cross-section
LP
01x
and LP
01y
modes have the same v
g
No PMD
Real Fiber
External agents
(stress,
heat,)
x
y
Not perfectly circular cross-section
LP
01x
and LP
01y
modes have slightly
different v
g
PMD
Not perfectly circular fiber: | is slightly different for E
y
and E
x
Fiber birefringence: A|=||
x
-|
y
|

Intermodal dispersion between LP
01
x and LP
01
y
z j
e r E
|
|
) , (
z j
y
y
e r E
|
|
) , (
z j
x
x
e r E
|
|
) , (
y
x
x
y
y
x
Polarization Mode Dispersion
intermodal dispersion between two modes

z
t
t
P
P
LP
01
x and LP
01
y
start together
LP
01
x and LP
01
y
arrive at different
times
Polarization Mode Dispersion: dependence by L
1/2
Along real fiber spans there are random perturbations of the circular symmetry
which partially compensate each other.
At
PMD
grows like (L)
1/2

D
PMD
typically is D
PMD
~ 0.1, 0.2 ps/(km
1/2
)

It must be put into account when chromatic dispersion has been reduced to low values
Use of Polarization Mantaining
Fibers (PMF) (LP
01x
and LP
01y
modes have highly different v
g
)

PMD counter-measures

Use of Regenerators along the
connection
Use of compensators at the end
of the connection
(SMF) (SMF)
(RIG)
t
t
t
x
y
z
(SMF)
(C)
t
t
Rx
t
Non Linearities in Optical Fibers
Stimulated Raman
Scattering (SRS)
Stimulated Brillouin
Scattering (SBS)
Attenuation of
the transmitted
signal
Realization of
fiber amplifiers
and sensors
Self Phase
Modulation (SPM)
Cross Phase
Modulation (XPM)
Four Wave Mixing
(FWM)
Cross-Talk
Attenuation
Soliton
Transmission
Scattering
Related
Index
Related
Threshold: Value of the product Power*Length for which the attenuation is 3dB
The molecule:
absorbs a small part (~1 over 10
7
) of the incident power (attenuation)
enits a scattered radiation at frequency (f
i
-f
ph
) or (f
i
+f
ph
)
emits also a phonon (mechanical wave of frequency f
ph
) due to a variation
between vibrational states (Raman) or to emission of an acoustic wave (Brillouin)
Incident field
) ,
i IN
f f I = (
) ,
i OUT
f f I = (
... ..
PH i
f f + .
Generic molecule
of the optical fiber
Transmitted field
... ...
PH i
f f Scattered field
Common Mechanism of SRS and SBS
Model of Raman and Rayleigh Scattering
Photons absorbed at frequency

(coming from the incident field)
i
f
Photons emitted at frequency
(SRS Stokes)

PH i
f f
(SRS Anti-Stokes)

PH i
f f +
(Scattering of Rayleigh)
i
f
4
3
2
1
0
Vibrational
energy
states
Virtual
energy
states
Energy jumps due to:
Fiber
Signal
The scattering is ~
isotropic
The f
ph
exhibit a peak
at ~ 12 THz

BW ~7 THz (55 nm)

Threshold:

PL
th G.653
~ 14 Wkm
PL
th G.652
~ 20 Wkm
f
ph
(THz)

Spectrum of the radiation due to SRS
.6

.4

.2
BW
Spectrum of Raman Gain g
R
[10
-13
m/W] for
i
= 1.55 m
10 20 30 40
Model of Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
Fiber
Signal
SBS ~ retro-
diffusion
Incident field Acoustic Wave
Virtual grating (che si muove con
v =v
R
) due to compression-
rarefaction of the optical fiber
material
v
R
Fiber
Incident field ( )
i
f
Radiation emitted at
frquency
for Doppler effect
( )
PH i
f f
1
0
2
3
f
ph
(GHz)

10.7 11.0
G.652
G.653
Spectrum of the radiation due to SBS
Spectrum of the Brillouin Gain g
B
[10
-11
m/W] for
i
= 1.55 m
The f
ph
exhibit a peak
at ~ 11 GHz

BW ~ 28 MHz (G
652
)
BW ~ 60 MHz (G
653
)

Threshold:

PL
th
~ 0.03 Wkm
Structure of SRS/SBS based Optical Amplifiers
Pump
Laser
Optical input
signal
P
P
, e
P
P
S, IN
(t), e
S
Span of
amplifying fiber
P
S, OUT
(t), e
S
e
P
e
S
P(e)

e
P
e
S
P(e)

e

e

A pump laser (angular frequency
e
P
) gives power to the signal
(angular frequency e
S
)
Possible realization:
Temperature sensor based on SRS
The Anti-Stokes backscattared radiation is temperature-dependent and
can be used to detect temperature variations along the fibre.
T
f
Input
Power
Power
Spectrum
Transmitted
Power
Backscattered
Radiation
Stokes
radiation
Anti Stokes
radiation
Input
Intensity change in the Anti Stokes Radiation: ~ 0.8%/K.
It is possible to determine the position where a certain temperature is
present, with resolution respectively of ~ 1 C, ~ 3 m
Technique utilized: Optical Time Domain Reflectometry
Example: Monitoring water leakage in dyke / dam
Input
Pulse
(Water)
Optical
Fiber
Leakage
t
Backscattered
Radiation:
(Slope ov
g
)

t
I
I
R
(log. scale)
L
T
(Dyke)
See: elearning.just.edu.jo/jjce/issues/paper.php?p=3.pdf
I
R

I
Summary on scattering effects
f
f
Spectral density
of the input signal
f
s

Brillouin
Scattering
(f
s
-11GHz)
Rayleigh
Scattering
(same frequencies
of input signal)
(Stokes SRS
component)
(Anti-Stokes
SRS component)
(Z=0)
(Z=L)
Spectral density
of the output signal
Various spectral
densities
Fiber nonlinearities: electrical susceptivity
and self phase modulation (SPM)
We approximate the field of the LP
01y
mode as a plane wave in a medium with n=n
1

= cos
0

1
0
,
= cos
0

1
0

The first Maxwell Equation becomes:

=

0
where:

=
0
+
0
1 =
0
+
0
=
0
+
0

(1)
+
(2)
+
(3)
2

where is the electrical susceptivity, and where it is
(2)
= 0 in SiO
2

=
0
1 +
(1)
+
3
4

(3)
()
2

=
=
0
1
+
where
=
3
4

(3)
()
2
2 1+
(1)
=
3
4

(3)
2 1+
(1)
=
2
()
with =
1
2
,
2
=
3
4

(3)
2 1+
(1)
, and with () =
()
2
, intensity of the field

I
t
|(t)
t
t
f(t)
Intensity of the pulse

Behavior of the phase |(t)=e
0
t - (n
0
+n
2
I)k
0
z

Istantaneous frequency:
f(t) = 1/(2t) d|(t)/dt

The frequencies of the rising edge reduce their value
The frequencies of the falling edge increase their value
The spectrum of the signal becomes in general larger
Self Phase Modulation (SPM): Intuitive scheme
In positive dispersion regime (<1.3 mm)
the undesired pulse enlargement is
increased by the SPM

In negative dispersion regime ( >1.3 mm)
the undesired pulse enlargement is thwarted
by the SPM. The dispersion is
compensated.

The pulses (Solitons) must have a
sufficiently high power to trigger the
nonlinear effect of SPM.

The theoretical optimal shape of soliton
pulses is sech(t)
1.3 m

e
t
d
d
D
g
~
=
t
g
grows with
growing e:
positive
dispersion
t
g
reduces
with growing e:
negative
dispersion
Soliton propagation: SPM counteracts chromatic dispersion
Collecting the only terms at angular frequency e
1
we obtain:
An
NL
(e
1
)=
2
I(t)= where in this case it is I(t)=I
1
(t) +2I
2
(t)

Generalizing to the case of N WDM signals, the phase modulation of the i-th channel is
influenced by the power of the other WDM channels:
An
NL
(e
1
)= n
2
I = n
2
(I
i
+E
m
2I
m
) with m i
Cross phase modulation (XPM)
We assume now to transmit a WDM signal where two different signals
are sent expoiting two different optical carriers

=
1
+
2
=
1
cos
1

1
+
2
cos
2

2
,

=
1
+
2
=
1
cos
1

1
+
2
cos
2

2
,
From the first Maxwell Equation we have:

=

1
+
2
=

0
1
+
2

1
+
2
=
0
1 +
(1)

1
+
2
+ =+
0

(3)

1
+
2
3

Risk of interference among channels
Risk of creation of new frequencies (the fourth wave
4
=
1
3
)
Problem of low level in G.652 fibers. Problem of high level in G.653 fibers
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
It is the result of the cross product among 3 components of the WDM signal

=
=
cos

1
+
cos
cos
=
=
cos
cos
cos
,
From the first Maxwell Equation we have:

=

0
1
+
2
+
3
=
0
1 +
(1)

+ =+
0

(3)

Expanding the term to the third power it can be verified that angular frequencies
are obtained of the kind
with i,j,k =1,2,3

t
t
z
If in z=0 the three channels exhibit together
a logical 1, a strong interaction
arises among them
3 WDM channels with angular frequencies e
1
, e
2
, e
3

Strong FWM in absence of chromatic dispersion
(e
3
)
t
z
z
In absence of dispersion, the group velocity
is the same for e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, and
the three logical 1s maintain
their strong interaction all
along the fiber length
FWM is encouraged.
3

(e
1
)
(e
2
)
t
t
z
Lower FWM in presence of chromatic dispersion
(e
3
)
t
z
z
In presence of dispersion, the group velocities
of e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, and the three logical 1s do not
maintain their strong interaction
along the fiber length
FWM is counteracted
3

(e
1
)
(e
2
)
The value of chromatic dispersion must not be
equal to zero all along the fiber.

Fiber G-653 is not a good choice
D
A
(m)
1.3
1.55
1.5
1.6
G 652 (SSMF)
G 653 (DSF)
(not a good
choice
because of
FWM)
G 655 NZ-DSF (+D)
G 655 NZ-DSF (-D)
In order to counteract FWM at 1550 nm it is possible to utilize G 655 fibers
Introduction of Fibre G-655

Tutorial Slides On Optical Fibers

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, intensity of the field

with i,j,k =1,2,3

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