Class 16

Spring 2014
Geology 101
The Finalists
Eads, Henderson, Griffin, Richardson,
Mitchell
Adams, Grant, Mrosko*, Rust, Tutt
Gillespie, Dingle, Diaz, Martinez, Rios
4
th
OHayre, Whittingberg. Shirley, Adrian,
Dusek
5
th
Freels, Gomez, Keller, Schmidt,Dean
6
th
Cotton, Marris, Kiezinski, Wood,
Chapman, Watson, Thomas
Physiology of solid Earth driving
mechanism for plate tectonics
Plate Tectonics is the surface
expression of the mechanism by which
heat escapes the Earths interior
Origin of heat in the Earths interior
1. radioactive decay
2. residual heat from Earths formation, mostly in
mantle, higher % in crust and to a lesser extent, heat
contribution from the growth of the inner core which
drives the convection in the outer core
The Core
The P- and S-waves both refract and
reflect as they cross discontinuities.



This results in shadow zones.
These shadow zones reveal the
presence of concentric layers
within the Earth, recognized by
changes in seismic wave
velocities at discontinuities.

P-wave discontinuities indicate a
decrease in P-wave velocity at the
core-mantle boundary at about 2900
km.

S-wave blocked from passing thru
liquids, thus indicating that the
outer core is liquid.
Fig. 8.24, p. 215
The Core
Density and Composition of the Core

The density and composition
of the concentric layers have
been determined by the
behavior of P-waves and S-
waves.
Compositionally, the inner
core is thought to be iron
and nickel, the outer core
iron with 10 to 20% other,
lighter substances, and
The mantle probably
peridotite.


Fig. 8.23, p. 215
Earths Mantle
The boundary between the crust and mantle is
known as the Mohorovii Discontinuity.

It was discovered when it was noticed that seismic
stations received two sets of P- and S-waves. This
meant that the set below the discontinuity traveled
deeper but more quickly than the shallower waves.

Fig. 8.25, p. 216
Earth's Mantle
The Mantles Structure, Density and Composition -
Several discontinuities exist within the mantle.



The velocity of P- and S-waves
decrease markedly from 100 to 250km
depth, which corresponds to the upper
asthenosphere.
The asthenosphere is an important
zone in the mantle because this is
where magma is generated.
Decreased elasticity accounts for
decreased seismic wave velocity in the
low-velocity asthenosphere. This
decreased elasticity allows the
asthenosphere to flow plastically.
Fig. 8.26, p. 217
Earth's Mantle Structure,
Density and Composition



Peridotite is thought to represent the main
composition in the mantle.
Experiments indicate that peridotite has the
physical properties and density to account for
seismic wave velocity in the mantle.
Peridotite makes up the lower parts of
sequences that represent oceanic crust and
upper mantle.
Peridotite is also found as inclusions in that
came from depths of 100 to 300 km.
http://geology.com/rocks/peridotite.shtml
Exposed section of Mantle in Oman
Earth's Internal Heat
Geothermal gradient measures the increase in temperature with
depth in the earth. Most of Earth's internal heat is generated by
radioactive isotope decay in the mantle.

The upper-most crust has a high geothermal gradient of
25 C/km.
This must be much less in the mantle and core, probably about
1 C/km.
The center of the inner core has a temperature estimated at
6,500 C.
Earth's Crust
Continental crust is mostly granitic
and low in density

It has an average density of 2.7
gm/cm
3
and a velocity of about 6.75
km/sec
It averages about 35 kilometers thick,
being much thicker beneath the
shields and mountain ranges of the
continents.
Objectives - Chapter 8
Explain how scientists use earthquake energy
to learn about the interior of the earth.
Describe the characteristics of the five major
layers of the Earths interior.
Explain the origins of the heat that keeps the
Earth warm.
Describe why a heat generating Earth is
different from a cold planet
Objectives Chapter 19
Explain the origin of the three kinds of ocean
waves (Gravity, tidal, tsunami)
Discuss how waves and tides shape coastline
features
Explain how beaches and dunes dissipate
wave energy hand help protect the coastland.
Describe the evidence and consequences of
rising sea levels
14.03.a
How Waves Are Described
How Waves Propagate Across the Water
Wave characteristics and
terminology
Wavelength (L)
Still water level
Orbital motion
Crest
Trough
Wave height (H)
Calm water
Orbital size decreases with depth to zero at
wave base
Depth of wave base = wavelength,
measured from still water level
Wave characteristics and
terminology (continued)

If wave steepness exceeds
1
/
7
, the wave breaks
Period (T) = the time it takes one full wave
one wavelengthto pass a fixed position

) ( wavelength
) ( height wave
steepness Wave
L
H

T
f
1
) ( Frequency
Wave Dissipation
Ocean waves can be classified in various ways:

Disturbing Force- the forces which generate the
waves.
1. Gravity or Wind waves - sea and swell belong
Short wave length .
2. Earthquakes; they generate tsunamis, which
are shallow water or long waves.
3. Tides (astronomical forcing); they are always
shallow water or long waves.
Wave Classification
Wind or Gravity Waves
Wind passing over water 2%-3% of energy
transferred to water in form of waves
Longer wind blows, bigger waves get.
Time and fetch or length of run determines
Wave velocity (Celerity) approaches wind
speed
Wave motion almost frictionless energy
can travel great distance without much loss
22
Wave Forecasting Diagram
(Gren and Dorrestein, 1976
14.03.c
Breaks where wave base = wavelength
Wind blows
across
surface
Waves increase
in size
Wave
collapses if
becomes too
steep
How do waves form?
The sea and swell
Waves originate in a
sea area
Swell describes
waves that:
Have traveled out of
their area of
origination
Exhibit a uniform and
symmetrical shape
Figure 8-9
Second basic type of wave generated largely
by this Bad Boy
Tidal forces
Tides enhanced during full Moon and new Moon
Sun-Moon-Earth closely aligned



Influence of Perigee, Apogee, Perihelion and
Aphelion on the Earths Tides
Stronger for perigee and perihelion
Annapolis Tidal Power Generating Station
Gravity the driver but shape of shorelines
Make variable the local affects of tidal waves