Educ RSCH Pp09

McMillan
Educational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer, 6e

2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Educational Research:
Fundamentals for the Consumer
Woolfolk / Perry
Child and Adolescent Development

Sixth Edition
McMillan

Understanding Statistical
Inferences
Chapter 9
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3
Discussion Topics
Inferential statistics
Purpose
Error
Terminology
Hypothesis testing
Inferential tests
Criteria for evaluating the inferential
statistics reports in studies

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4
Inferential Statistics
The purpose of inferential statistics is to
draw inferences about a population on
the basis of an estimate from a sample
Inferential statistics - specific statistical
procedures that accomplish this
purpose
The ultimate goal is to draw accurate
conclusions about the population
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5
Two types of errors
Sampling errors
Without measuring the entire population, the results
can be inaccurate due to sampling error
The larger the proportion of the population that is
sampled, the lower the sampling error; the smaller the
proportion of the population that is sampled, the higher
the sampling error
A sample of 99% of a population is likely to show results
that are very, very similar to those that would have been
found if everyone in the population was measured
A sample of 1% is likely to show results that are different
from those in the population - the question is how
different are the sample results
Need to estimate the level of sampling error relative to
the inferences being drawn
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6
Measurement errors
Regardless of the sample size, the results
can be inaccurate due to measurement
error
Lack of validity
Lack of reliability
Need to estimate the level of measurement
error relative to the inferences being drawn
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7
Terminology
Null hypothesis
No differences between groups
No relationships between variables
Level of significance
Probability of being wrong in rejecting the null
hypothesis
Known as alpha (a)
Types of errors
Type I - rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true
Type II - not rejecting (i.e., accepting) the null
hypothesis when it is not true
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8
Issues related to statistical and practical
significance
Statistical significance
The typical or atypical nature of the comparison of the
observed difference to the sampling distribution can
be estimated using statistical theory
The estimate is the probability of being wrong in
rejecting the null hypothesis
It is stated as p = x where x is the specific probability of
the comparison (e.g., p = .001, p = .042, p = .56) or as
p < y where y is the alpha level (e.g., .10, .05, .01)
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9
Statistical significance (continued)
There is always the possibility of making a mistake
given that this is based on a probability model
Type I error - deciding to reject the null hypothesis when
in reality it is true
Type II error - accepting the null hypothesis when it in
reality it is false
Typical levels of significance in education - .10, .05,
and .01
Factors affecting the level of significance
The actual differences between the groups
The degree to which sampling and measurement errors
exist
The size of the sample
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10
Practical significance
Practical significance is related to the importance
and usefulness of the results
Estimates of practical significance
For correlations the coefficient of determination
(i.e., r
2
) is used
For comparisons an effect size is used
Effect size is the difference between two group
means in terms of the control group standard
deviation Cohens d
Evaluating effect sizes small (.30), moderate (.50),
and large (.75)
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11
Each consumer of the research
must judge the balance between
the statistical significance and the
practical significance of the
statistical results given the context
in which the results might be used.
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12
Inferential Tests
Two types of inferential tests
Parametric - inferential procedures using
interval or ratio level data
Non-parametric - inferential procedures
using nominal or ordinal data
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13
Parametric Tests
T-test
A comparison of the means for two groups
Do the mean scores on the final exam differ for
the experimental and control groups?
Independent samples t-test - compares the
means of two separate groups on one variable
Posttest means for Group 1 and Group 2
Dependent sample t-test - compares the means
of two variables for one group
Pre-test and posttest means for Group 1
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14
Parametric Tests
T-test (continued)
A determination of whether a relationship
exists
Does a correlation of +.63 between students
math attitudes and math achievement indicate a
relationship exists between these two variables?
Correlation t-test - compares the magnitude of
the difference between a correlation coefficient
and 0.00
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15
Parametric Tests
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
A comparison of the means for two or more
groups
Omnibus ANOVA - a procedure that
indicates whether one of more pairs of
means are different
Do the mean scores differ for the groups
using co-operative group, lecture, or web-
based instruction?
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16
Parametric Tests
ANOVA (continued)
Multiple comparisons (i.e., post-hoc)
Procedures that indicate which specific pairs of means
are different as a follow-up to a significant omnibus
ANOVA result
Do the mean scores differ between the co-operative
group and lecture, co-operative group and web-based,
and lecture and web-based instruction?
Two common tests
Tukey
Scheffe
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17
Parametric Tests
Factorial ANOVA
A procedure that analyzes the difference between
groups across two or more independent variables
Do the mean scores differ for co-operative group,
lecture, and web-based instruction for males and
females?
Effects
Main effects - differences between the levels of each
independent variable
Interaction effects - differences between combinations
of the levels of each independent variable
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18
Parametric Tests
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
A procedure that compares means after
statistically adjusting them for pretest
differences between groups
Very stringent assumptions that must be
met to use this procedure
Adjusts for small to moderate - not large -
pretest differences
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19
Parametric Tests
Multivariate statistics
Comparisons or relationships involving two or more
dependent variables
Comparison of means
Are there differences in the attitudes and
performances of students being taught with lecture or
web-based instruction?
Specific tests
Multivariate ANOVA (MANVOA)
Multivariate ANCOVA (MANCOVA)
Hotellings T
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20
Non-Parametric Tests
Chi-square - differences in frequencies
across different categories
Do mothers and fathers differ in their
support of a year-round school calendar?
Do the percentages of undergraduate,
graduate, and doctoral students differ in
terms of their support for the new class
attendance policy?
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21
Non-Parametric Tests
Comparison of means
Mann Whitney U-test
Wilcoxon test
Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA
Relationships
Spearman r
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22
Evaluation Criteria
Basic descriptive statistics are needed
to evaluate the inferential results
Inferential analyses report statistical
significance, not practical significance
Inferential analyses do not indicate
internal or external validity
The results depend on sample sizes
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23
Evaluation Criteria
The appropriate statistical procedures
are used
The level of significance is interpreted
correctly
Caution is used to interpret non-
parametric results from studies with few
subjects in one or more groups or
categories

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Educational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer, 6e

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