FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY I

CHM092
CHAPTER 1:
STOICHIOMETRY
Subtopic
1.0 Molecular View of Elements and
Compounds
1.1 Chemical Formulas
1.2 Naming of Compounds
1.3 Balanced Chemical Equations
1.4 Stoichiometry
1.5 Mole Concept
1.6 Relative Atomic Mass
1.7 Molar Mass and Avogadros Number
LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to
Write and name chemical formulas of ionic and
covalent compounds according to IUPAC
Construct and balance chemical equation
Define and calculate mole and Avogadros number
Define and calculate relative atomic mass and
relative formula mass


1.0 Molecular View of Elements and
Compounds
Classifying Elements &
Compounds
5
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Elements = the simplest type of substance with unique
physical and chemical properties. An element consists
of only one type of atom. It cannot be broken down
into any simpler substances by physical or chemical
means.

Atomic elements = elements whose particles are
single atoms
Molecular elements = elements whose particles are
multi-atom molecules
6
Atomic Elements
Classifying Elements &
Compounds
7
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Classifying Elements &
Compounds
Compound - a substance composed of two or more
elements which are chemically combined.

Molecular compounds - compounds whose particles
are molecules made of only nonmetals e.g. dry ice,
quartz,
Ionic compounds - compounds whose particles are
cations (metals) and anions (nonmetals) e.g. lithium
fluoride, calcium chloride

Mixture - a group of two or more elements and/o
compounds that are physically intermingled.


Classifying Elements &
Compounds
Molecular Compounds vs. Ionic Comounds
Propane contains
individual C
3
H
8

molecules
Table salt contains
an array of Na
+
ions
and Cl
-
ions
9
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Classifying Elements &
Compounds
Classify Each of the Following as Either an Atomic Element,
Molecular Element, Molecular Compound, or Ionic Compound
Aluminum, Al
Aluminum chloride, AlCl
3

Chlorine, Cl
2

Acetone, C
3
H
6
O
Carbon monoxide, CO
Cobalt, Co

10
atomic element
ionic compound
molecular element
molecular compound
molecular compound
atomic element
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Example 1
Chemical Formulas
1.1
Types of Chemical Formulas
An empirical formula indicates the relative number of atoms of
each element in the compound. It is the simplest type of formula.
A molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of
each element in a molecule of the compound.
A structural formula shows the number of atoms and the
bonds between them, that is, the relative placement and
connections of atoms in the molecule.
A chemical formula is comprised of element symbols and numerical
subscripts that show the type and number of each atom present in the
smallest unit of the substance.
The empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide is HO.
The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H
2
O
2
.
The structural formula for hydrogen peroxide is H-O-O-H.
1.1 Chemical Formulas




1.1 Chemical Formulas
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine
the formula of a compound this way:
The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion.
The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation.
If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-number ratio,
divide them by the greatest common factor.
The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula

Compound must have no total charge, therefore we must
balance the numbers of cations and anions in a compound to
get 0 charge





1.1 Chemical Formulas
Al
2
O
3

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al
3+
O
2-

CaBr
2

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
Ca
2+
Br
-

Na
2
CO
3
2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na
+
CO
3
2-

Compounds that Contain Ions




1.1 Chemical Formulas
Writing the formula for ionic compounds containing
polyatomic ion
Iron(III) phosphate
1. Write the symbol for the cation and
its charge
2. Write the symbol for the anion and
its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions
Fe
3+

PO
4
3

Fe
3+
PO
4
3
Fe
3
(PO
4
)
3
Fe = (1)(3+) = +3
PO
4
= (1)(3) = 3
FePO
4
Writing the chemical formula for a binary ionic compound
containing variable charge metal
manganese(IV) sulfide
1. Write the symbol for the cation and
its charge
2. Write the symbol for the anion and
its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions
Mn
4+

S
2-

Mn
4+
S
2
Mn
2
S
4
Mn = (1)(4+) = +4
S = (2)(2) = 4
MnS
2




1.1 Chemical Formulas
Exercise 2: Find the empirical formula for each of the
following
The ionic compound that has two aluminum ions for
every three oxide ions
arabinose, C
5
H
10
O
5
pyrimidine
ethylene glycol
C
C
N
C
N
C
H
H H
H
Al
2
O
3

CH
2
O
C
2
H
2
N
CH
3
O

Exercise 3 : Write the empirical formulas for the following
molecules:

(a) acetylene (C
2
H
2
), which is used in welding torches
(b) glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
), a substance known as blood sugar
(c) nitrous oxide (N
2
O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic
gas (laughing gas) and as an aerosol propellant for
whipped creams.
1.1 Chemical Formulas
Solution
(a) There are two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms in
acetylene. Dividing the subscripts by 2, we obtain the empirical
formula CH.

(b) In glucose there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and
6 oxygen atoms. Dividing the subscripts by 6, we obtain the
empirical formula CH
2
O.

(c) Because the subscripts in N
2
O are already the smallest
possible whole numbers, the empirical formula for nitrous oxide
is the same as its molecular formula.



1.1 Chemical Formulas




1.1 Chemical Formulas
Exercise 4: Write a formula for an ionic compound between calcium and
oxygen



Exercise 5 : What are the formulas for compounds made from the
following ions?
Aluminum ion with a sulfate ion



Chromium(II) with hydrogen carbonate
Cr
2+
with HCO
3

Cr(HCO
3
)
2

Al
3+
with SO
4
2
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3

Topic
Naming of Compounds
1.2




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Rules for naming Ionic Compounds
Consists of cation and anion
Some have one or more nicknames that are only learned
by experience
NaCl = table salt, NaHCO
3
= baking soda
Write systematic name by simply naming the ions
if cation is:
metal with invariant charge = metal name
metal with variable charge = metal name(charge)
polyatomic ion = name of polyatomic ion
if anion is:
nonmetal = stem of nonmetal name + ide
polyatomic ion = name of polyatomic ion




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Naming Metal Cations
Metals with invariant charge
metals whose ions can
only have one possible
charge
cation name = metal name




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Naming Metal Cations
Metals with variable Charges
metals whose ions can
have more than one
possible charge
determine charge by
charge on anion and
cation
name = metal name with
Roman numeral charge
in parentheses





1.2 Naming of Compounds
Naming Monatomic Nonmetal Anion
Determine the charge from position on the Periodic Table
To name anion, change ending on the element name to ide




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds for
Metals with Invariant Charge
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. cation name is the metal name
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Example: Naming Binary Ionic with Invariant Charge
Metal, CsF
1. Identify cation and anion
Cs = Cs
+
because it is Group 1A
F = F

because it is Group 7A

2. Name the cation
Cs
+
= cesium

3. Name the anion
F

= fluoride

4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
cesium fluoride
Exercise 6 : Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) magnesium and nitrogen
(b) iodine and barium
(c) strontium and fluorine
(d) sulfur and cesium
1.2 Naming of Compounds




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds for
Metals with Variable Charge
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. metal cation name is the metal name followed by a Roman
numeral in parentheses to indicate its charge
determine charge from anion charge
common ions Table 3.4
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Example: Naming binary ionic with variable charge
metal, CuF
2

1. Identify the cation and anion
F = F

because it is Group 7
Cu = Cu
2+
to balance the two () charges from 2 F


2. Name the cation
Cu
2+
= copper(II)

3. Name the anion
F

= fluoride

4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
copper(II) fluoride
Exercise 7 : Name the following compounds
1. TiCl
4

2. PbBr
2
3. Fe
2
S
3

titanium(IV) chloride
lead(II) bromide
iron(III) sulfide
1.2 Naming of Compounds




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Exercise 8 : Give the systematic name for each formula or
the formula for each name for the following compounds:
(a) tin(II) fluoride
(b) CrI
3

(c) ferric oxide
(d) CoS





1.2 Naming of Compounds
(a) Tin(II) is Sn
2+
; fluoride is F
-
; so the formula is SnF
2
.
(b) The anion I
-
is iodide; 3I
-
means that Cr (chromium) is +3.
CrI
3
is chromium(III) iodide.
(c) Ferric is a common name for Fe
3+
; oxide is O
2-
; therefore
the formula is Fe
2
O
3
.
(d) Co is cobalt; the anion S
2-
is sulfide; the compound is
cobalt(II) sulfide.
Solution




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are single ions that contain more
than one atom
Often identified by parentheses around ion in
formula
Name and charge of polyatomic ion do not change
Name any ionic compound by naming cation first
and then anion

Periodic Pattern of Polyatomic Ions Containing
-ate groups
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Patterns for Polyatomic Ions
-ate ion
chlorate = ClO
3

-ate ion + 1 O same charge, per- prefix
perchlorate = ClO
4

-ate ion 1 O same charge, -ite suffix
chlorite = ClO
2

-ate ion 2 O same charge, hypo- prefix, -ite suffix
hypochlorite = ClO

1.2 Naming of Compounds
Patterns for Polyatomic Ions
1. Elements in the same column form similar
polyatomic ions
same number of Os and same charge
ClO
3

= chlorate \ BrO
3

= bromate

2. If the polyatomic ion starts with H, add hydrogen-
prefix before name and add 1 to the charge
CO
3
2
= carbonate \ HCO
3

= hydrogen carbonate

1.2 Naming of Compounds




1.2 Naming of Compounds
Formula Name Formula Name
Cations
NH
4
+
ammonium H
3
O
+
hydronium
Common Anions
CH
3
COO
-

CN
-

OH
-

ClO
-

ClO
2
-

ClO
3
-

NO
2
-

NO
3
-

MnO
4
-

acetate
cyanide
hydroxide
hypochlorite
chlorite
chlorate
nitrite
nitrate
permanganate
CO
3
2-
HCO
3
-

CrO
4
2-

Cr
2
O
7
2-

O
2
2-

PO
4
3-

HPO
4
2-

SO
3
2-
SO
4
2-

carbonate
bicarbonate
chromate
dichromate
peroxide
phosphate
hydrogen phosphate
sulfite
sulfate
Naming Polyatomic ion
Example: Naming ionic compounds
containing a polyatomic ion, Na
2
SO
4

1. Identify the ions
Na = Na
+
because in Group 1A
SO
4
= SO
4
2
a polyatomic ion
2. Name the cation
Na
+
= sodium, metal with invariant charge
3. Name the anion
SO
4
2
= sulfate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion
sodium sulfate

1.2 Naming of Compounds
Example: Naming ionic compounds containing
a polyatomic ion, Fe(NO
3
)
3
1. Identify the ions
NO
3
= NO
3

a polyatomic ion
Fe = Fe
3+
to balance the charge of the 3 NO
3

2. Name the cation
Fe
3+
= iron(III), metal with variable charge
3. Name the anion
NO
3

= nitrate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion
iron(III) nitrate
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Exercise 9 : Name the Following Compounds
1. NH
4
Cl
2. Ca(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
3. Cu(NO
3
)
2

ammonium chloride
calcium acetate
copper(II) nitrate
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Hydrates
Hydrates are ionic compounds containing a
specific number of waters for each formula unit
Water of hydration often driven off by heating
In formula, attached waters follow
CoCl
2
6H
2
O
In name attached waters indicated by
prefix+hydrate after name of ionic compound
CoCl
2
6H
2
O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
CaSO
4
H
2
O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
1.2 Naming of Compounds
45
BaCl
2
2H
2
O
LiClH
2
O
MgSO
4
7H
2
O
Sr(NO
3
)
2
4H
2
O
barium chloride dihydrate
lithium chloride monohydrate
magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
strontium nitrate tetrahydrate
CuSO
4
5H
2
O CuSO
4
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Exercise 20 : What is the formula of magnesium sulfate
heptahydrate?

Exercise 21 : What is the name of NiCl
2
6H
2
O?
Mg
2+
+ SO
4
2

MgSO
4

MgSO
4
7H
2
O
Cl

+ Ni
2+

nickel(II) chloride
nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Writing Names of Binary Molecular
Compounds of Two Nonmetals
1. Write name of first element in formula
a) element furthest left and down on the Periodic Table
b) use the full name of the element

2. Writes name the second element in the formula with an -ide suffix
a) as if it were an anion, however, remember these compounds do not
contain ions!

3. Use a prefix in front of each name to indicate the number of atoms
a) Never use the prefix mono- on the first element
Subscript Prefixes
Drop last a if name begins with a vowel
1 = mono-
not used on first nonmetal
2 = di-
3 = tri-
4 = tetra-
5 = penta-
6 = hexa-
7 = hepta-
8 = octa-
9 = nona-
10 = deca-
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Example: Naming a binary molecular
compound, BF
3
1. Name the first element
boron
2. Name the second element with an ide
fluorine fluoride
3. Add a prefix to each name to indicate the subscript
monoboron, trifluoride
4. Write the first element with prefix, then the second
element with prefix
drop prefix mono from first element
boron trifluoride
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Exercise 10 : Name the Following
NO
2

PCl
5

I
2
F
7

Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphorus pentachloride
Diiodine heptafluoride
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Exercise 11 : Write Formulas for the Following
dinitrogen tetroxide
sulfur hexafluoride
diarsenic trisulfide
N
2
O
4

SF
6

As
2
S
3

1.2 Naming of Compounds
52
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Acids are molecular compounds that form H
+
when
dissolved in water
Acid Nomenclature
Binary Acid Nomenclature
If the anion in the acid
ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
HCl: hydrochloric acid
HBr: hydrobromic acid
HI: hydroiodic acid
1.2 Naming of Compounds
If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
HClO
3
: chloric acid
HClO
4
: perchloric acid
Oxyacid Nomenclature
1.2 Naming of Compounds
If the anion in the acid
ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid.
HClO: hypochlorous
acid
HClO
2
: chlorous acid

Oxyacid Nomenclature
1.2 Naming of Compounds
56
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Exercise 12 : Name the Following anions and give
the name and formula of the acid derived from it
H
2
SO
4
HClO
2

HNO
2

Sulfuric acid
chlorous acid
nitrous acid
1.2 Naming of Compounds
SO
4
2-




ClO
2
-


NO
2
-

Sulfate
chlorite
nitrite
Exercise 13 : Name the Following anions and give
the name and formula of the acid derived from it
HNO
3
H
2
CrO
4

H
2
Cr
2
O
7

Nitric acid
Chromic acid
Dichromic acid
1.2 Naming of Compounds
NO
3
-




CrO
4
2-


Cr
2
O
7
2-

Nitrate
Chromate
Dichromate
Exercise 14 What are the formulas for
the following acids?
H
+
with ClO
2

HClO
2

H
+
with PO
4
3
H
3
PO
4
H
+
with Br

HBr
chlorous acid
phosphoric acid
hydrobromic acid
59
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Example: Binary Acids
hydrosulfuric acid
1. Write the symbol for the cation and
its charge
2. Write the symbol for the anion and its
charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
4. Add (aq) to indicate dissolved in
water
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions
H
+

S
2

H
+
S
2
H
2
S

H = (2)(1+) = +2
S = (1)(2) = 2
H
2
S(aq)

in all acids the
cation is H
+

hydro means
binary
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Example: Oxyacids
Perbromic acid
1. Write the symbol for the cation and
its charge
2. Write the symbol for the anion and
its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
4. Add (aq) to indicate dissolved in
water
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions
H
+

BrO
4

H
+
BrO
4

HBrO
4
H = (1)(1+) = +1
BrO
4
= (1)(1) = 1
HBrO
4
(aq)

in all acids the
cation is H
+

no hydro means
polyatomic ion
-ic means -ate ion
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Example: Oxyacids
sulfurous acid
1. Write the symbol for the cation
and its charge
2. Write the symbol for the anion
and its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion
4. Add (aq) to indicate dissolved in
water
5. Check that the total charge of
the cations cancels the total
charge of the anions
H
+

SO
3
2

H
+
SO
3
2

H
2
SO
3
H = (2)(1+) = +2
SO
3
= (1)(2) = 2
H
2
SO
3
(aq)

in all acids the
cation is H
+

no hydro means
polyatomic ion
-ous means -ite ion
1.2 Naming of Compounds
63
Additional Problems
Explain what is wrong with the name or formula at the
end of each statement and correct it:

(a) Ba(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
barium diacetate
(b) Ammonium phosphate (NH
3
)
4
PO
4
(c) Iron (II) sulfate Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
(d) Cr(NO
3
)
3
- chromic (III) nitride
(e) Dichlorine heptaoxide Cl
2
O
6
(f) BrCl
3
Trichlorine bromide
1.2 Naming of Compounds
Balanced Chemical
Equations
1.3
Chemical Equations
Shorthand way of describing a reaction
Provides information about the reaction
formulas of reactants and products
states of reactants and products
relative numbers of reactant and product molecules
that are required
can be used to determine weights of reactants used
and products that can be made
1. 3 Balanced Chemical Equations
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
CH
4 (g)
+ 2 O
2 (g)
CO
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(g)

Chemical equations are concise representations of
chemical reactions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
Reactants appear on the left
side of the equation.
CH
4 (g)
+ 2 O
2 (g)
CO
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(g)

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
Products appear on the
right side of the equation.
CH
4 (g)
+ 2 O
2 (g)
CO
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(g)

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
The states of the reactants and products are
written in parentheses to the right of each
compound.
CH
4 (g)
+ 2 O
2 (g)
CO
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(g)

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
Coefficients are inserted to
balance the equation.
CH
4 (g)
+ 2 O
2 (g)
CO
2 (g)
+ 2 H
2
O
(g)

2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Subscripts and Coefficients Give
Different Information
Subscripts tell the number of atoms of
each element in a molecule.
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Subscripts and Coefficients Give
Different Information
Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each
element in a molecule
Coefficients tell the number of molecules.
Balancing Chemical Equations
1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left side
and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the right side
of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
C
2
H
6
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to
make the number of atoms of each element the same on both
sides of the equation. Do not change the subscripts.
2C
2
H
6
NOT C
4
H
12
Balancing Chemical Equations
3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only one
reactant and one product.
C
2
H
6
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O start with C or H but not O
2 carbon
on left
1 carbon
on right
multiply CO
2
by 2
C
2
H
6
+ O
2
2CO
2
+ H
2
O
6 hydrogen
on left
2 hydrogen
on right
multiply H
2
O by 3
C
2
H
6
+ O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O
Balancing Chemical Equations
4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more reactants
or products.
2 oxygen
on left
4 oxygen
(2x2)
C
2
H
6
+ O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O
+ 3 oxygen
(3x1)
multiply O
2
by
7
2
= 7 oxygen
on right
C
2
H
6
+ O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O
7
2
remove fraction
multiply both sides by 2
2C
2
H
6
+ 7O
2
4CO
2
+ 6H
2
O
76
Balancing Chemical Equations
5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of each
type of atom on both sides of the equation.
2C
2
H
6
+ 7O
2
4CO
2
+ 6H
2
O
Reactants Products
4 C
12 H
14 O
4 C
12 H
14 O
4 C (2 x 2) 4 C
12 H (2 x 6) 12 H (6 x 2)
14 O (7 x 2) 14 O (4 x 2 + 6)
translate the statement
balance the atoms
specify states of matter (solid (s),
liquid (l), gas (g), aquous (aq))
adjust the coefficients
check the atom balance
Balancing Chemical Equation
Example : Write a balanced equation for the combustion of
butane, C
4
H
10

8 C 8; 20 H 20; 26 O 26
{C
4
H
10
(l) + 13/2 O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + 5 H
2
O(g)}x 2
2 C
4
H
10
(l) + 13 O
2
(g) 8 CO
2
(g) + 10 H
2
O(g)
13/2 x 2 O 13
C
4
H
10
(l) + 13/2 O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + 5 H
2
O(g)

4 C 1 x 4
C
4
H
10
(l) + O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(g)
10 H 2 x 5
C
4
H
10
(l) + O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + 5 H
2
O(g)
C
4
H
10
(l) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(g)
Check
If fractional coefficients,
multiply thru by
denominator
Balance free elements by
adjusting coefficient in
front of free element
Balance atoms in complex
substances first
Write a skeletal equation
Exercise 15 : when aluminum metal reacts with air, it produces a
white, powdery compound, aluminum oxide
reacting with air means reacting with O
2

aluminum(s) + oxygen(g) aluminum oxide(s)
Al(s) + O
2
(g) Al
2
O
3
(s)


4 Al(s) + 3 O
2
(g)

2 Al
2
O
3
(s)
1. 3 Balanced Chemical Equations
Exercise 16 : Acetic acid reacts with the metal aluminum to make
aqueous aluminum acetate and gaseous hydrogen
acids are always aqueous
metals are solid except for mercury
Al(s) + HC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq) Al(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
3
(aq) + H
2
(g)
2 Al(s) + 6 HC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq) 2 Al(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
(g)
Mole Concept
Topic:
1.4
81
By definition:
1 atom
12
C weighs 12 amu
On this scale
1
H = 1.008 amu

16
O = 16.00 amu
Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass
units (amu)
Micro World
atoms & molecules
Macro World
grams
Atomic Mass
82
The average atomic mass is the weighted
average of all of the naturally occurring
isotopes of the element.
Element having the same atomic
number but difference atomic
mass number
83
Naturally occurring lithium is:
7.42%
6
Li (6.015 amu)
92.58%
7
Li (7.016 amu)
0.0742 x 6.015 + 0.9258 x 7.016 = 6.941 amu
Average atomic mass of lithium:
(fraction of isotope,n) x (mass of isotope, n)
84
Average atomic mass (6.941)
What is the difference between
Atomic Mass, Formula Mass and
Molecular Mass ??
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Formula Mass (FM)
Formula mass are generally reported for ionic
compounds.
A formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
for the atoms in a chemical formula.
So, the formula mass of calcium chloride, CaCl
2
,
would be
Ca: 1(40.1 amu)
+ Cl: 2(35.5 amu)
111.1 amu

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Molecular Mass (MM)
A molecular mass is the sum of the atomic
masses of the atoms in a molecule.
For the molecule ethane, C
2
H
6
, the
molecular mass would be
C: 2(12.0 amu)
30.0 amu
+ H: 6(1.0 amu)
88
The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains
as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly
12.00 grams of 12C

1 mol = N
A
= 6.0221367 x 10
23

Avogadros number (N
A
)
Dozen = 12
Pair = 2
The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles
The Mole
89
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of in grams
eggs
shoes
marbles
atoms
1 mole
12
C atoms = 6.022 x 10
23
atoms = 12.00 g
1
12
C atom = 12.00 amu
1 mole
12
C atoms = 12.00 g
12
C
1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li
For any element
atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1.4 Mole Concept
Mole and Mass Relationships
1 mole
sulfur
32.06 g
1 mole
carbon
12.01 g
1.4 Mole Concept
The following relationships supply the conversion factors for the
conversions among mass in grams, amount in moles, and number of
elementary units,
Mass (gram) of substance
Mol substance = molar mass of substance (g mol
-1
)
Number of elementary units = mol X Avogadros No (atoms / molecules /
formula units)
Examples :
1 mol of copper, Cu contains 6.022 x 10
23
of Cu atoms.
1 mol of water , H
2
O contains 6.022 x 10
23
of H
2
O molecules.
1 mol of MgCl
2
crystal contains 6.022 x 10
23
of MgCl
2
formula units.
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Avogadros Number
6.02 x 10
23

1 mole of
12
C has a
mass of 12 g.
Stoichiometry
Topic:
1.5

1.5 Stoichiometry

Quantities in Chemical Reactions
The amount of every substance used and made in a
chemical reaction is related to the amounts of all the
other substances in the reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass
Balancing equations by balancing atoms
The study of the numerical relationship between
chemical quantities in a chemical reaction is called
stoichiometry

1.5 Stoichiometry

Units
Always write every number with its associated unit
Always include units in your calculations
you can do the same kind of operations on units
as you can on numbers
cm cm = cm
2

cm + cm = cm
cm cm = 1
using units as a guide to problem solving is called
dimensional analysis

1.5 Stoichiometry

Dimensional Analysis: Converting One Unit to Another
Dimensional analysis method is emphasized, because

Provide a systematic, straightforward way to set up
problems
Gives a clear understanding of the principle involved
Trains you to organize evaluate data
Helps to identify errors, since unwanted units are not
eliminated if the setup of the problem is incorrect

1.5 Stoichiometry

Reaction Stoichiometry
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation specify
the relative amounts in moles of each of the substances
involved in the reaction
2 C
8
H
18
(l) + 25 O
2
(g) 16 CO
2
(g) + 18 H
2
O(g)
2 molecules of C
8
H
18
react with 25 molecules of O
2

to form 16 molecules of CO
2
and 18 molecules of H
2
O
2 moles of C
8
H
18
react with 25 moles of O
2
to form 16 moles of CO
2
and 18 moles of H
2
O
2 mol C
8
H
18
: 25 mol O
2
: 16 mol CO
2
: 18 mol H
2
O

1.5 Stoichiometry

Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry
The amounts of any other substance in a chemical reaction can be
determined from the amount of just one substance. A chemically
balanced equation in the calculation
Example 2.6.1
a) How many moles of CO
2
can be produced in the combustion of
22.0 moles of C
8
H
18
?
The equation of reaction is
2 C
8
H
18
(l) + 25 O
2
(g) 16 CO
2
(g) + 18 H
2
O(g)
The mole: mole relationship from the balanced equation
2 moles C
8
H
18
: 16 moles CO
2

Example 1.5.1: Calculate the number of atoms in 2.45 mol of
copper
because atoms are small, the large number of atoms makes
sense



1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23
atoms
2.45 mol Cu
atoms Cu
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
mol Cu atoms Cu
Example 1.5.2: How many copper atoms are in a penny
weighing 3.10 g?
because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu,
the number makes sense


1 mol Cu = 63.55 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23

3.10 g Cu
atoms Cu
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu
Example 1.5.3: A silver ring contains 1.1 x 10
22
silver atoms.
How many moles of silver are in the ring?
because the number of atoms given is less than Avogadros
number, the answer makes sense




1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23
atoms
1.1 x 10
22
atoms Ag
moles Ag
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
atoms Ag mol Ag
Practice How many moles are in 50.0 g of PbO
2
?
(Pb = 207.2, O = 16.00)
because the given amount is less than 239.2 g,
the moles being < 1 makes sense



1 mol PbO
2
= 239.2 g
50.0 g mol PbO
2

moles PbO
2

Check:
Solution:
Conceptual
Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g PbO
2
mol PbO
2

102
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Example: Find the number of CO
2
molecules
in 10.8 g of dry ice
because the given amount is much less than
1 mol CO
2
, the number makes sense


1 mol CO
2
= 44.01 g,
1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23

10.8 g CO
2

molecules CO
2

Check:
Solution:
Conceptual
Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g CO
2
mol CO
2
molec CO
2

103
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Practice How many formula units are in
50.0 g of PbO
2
? (PbO
2
= 239.2)
because the given amount is less than 1
mol PbO
2
, the number makes sense



1 mol PbO
2
= 239.2 g,1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23

50.0 g PbO
2

formula units PbO
2

Check:
Solution:
Conceptual
Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g PbO
2
mol PbO
2
units PbO
2

104
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Practice What is the mass of 4.78 x 10
24
NO
2

molecules?
because the given amount is more than Avogadros
number, the mass > 46 g makes sense


1 mol NO
2
= 46.01 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23

4.78 x 10
24
NO
2
molecules
g NO
2

Check:
Solution:
Conceptual
Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
molecules
mol NO
2
g NO
2

105
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e




1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g, 1 mol Na = 22.99 g,
1 mol Na : 1 mol NaCl
Exercise 1.8.4 : Find the mass of sodium in 6.2 g of NaCl
(Na = 22.99; Cl = 35.45)
because the amount of Na is less than the amount of NaCl, the
answer makes sense
6.2 g NaCl
g Na
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g NaCl mol NaCl mol Na g Na
Example 1.5.5: Calculate the number of (i) H
2
O molecules (ii) H atoms
and (iii) all the atoms in 0.25 mol of water.
because the number of molecules is less than that of 1 mol, the
answer makes sense



1 mol = 6.022 x 10
23
molecules
0.25 mol H
2
O
(i) H
2
O molecules
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
Mol H
2
O
Molecules of H
2
O
6.022 x 10
23
molecules
1 mol
molecules 10 51 . 1
mol 1
molecules 10 x 6.022
x mol 0.25
23
23
x
Given 0.25 mol H
2
O, to find (ii) No. of H atoms (iii) total atoms
Conceptual plan :
Taking the answer from (i), we proceed to (ii) & (iii)
(ii) No. H atoms = No. of H
2
O molecules x 2 H atoms
1 molecule
= 3.01 x 10
23
H atoms
(iii) Total atoms = No. of H
2
O molecules x 3 atoms
1 molecule
= 4.52 x 10
23
atoms
Mol H
2
O Molecules H
2
O
H atoms
6.022 x 10
23
molecules
1 mol
2 H atoms
1 molecule
Total atoms
3 atoms
1 molecule
Example 1.4.2 : (b) Estimate the mass of CO
2
produced by the
combustion of 3.5 x 10
15
g gasoline, C
8
H
18
.
because 8x moles of CO
2
as C
8
H
18
, but the molar mass of
C
8
H
18
is 3x CO
2
, the number makes sense



1 mol C
8
H
18
= 114.22g, 1 mol CO
2
= 44.01g, 2 mol C
8
H
18
:16 mol CO
2

3.4 x 10
15
g C
8
H
18

g CO
2

Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g C
8
H
18
mol CO
2
g CO
2
mol C
8
H
18

110
x
6.022 x 10
23
atoms K
1 mol K
=
How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K) ?
1 mol K = 39.10 g K
1 mol K = 6.022 x 10
23
atoms K
0.551 g K
1 mol K
39.10 g K
x
8.49 x 10
21
atoms K
111
How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of C
3
H
8
O ?
1 mol C
3
H
8
O = (3 x 12) + (8 x 1) + 16 = 60 g C
3
H
8
O
1 mol H = 6.022 x 10
23
atoms H
5.82 x 10
24
atoms H
1 mol C
3
H
8
O molecules = 8 mol H atoms
72.5 g C
3
H
8
O
1 mol C
3
H
8
O
60 g C
3
H
8
O
x
8 mol H atoms
1 mol C
3
H
8
O
x
6.022 x 10
23
H atoms
1 mol H atoms
x =
Practice 2
Calculate the mass, in grams, of each of the following :
(a) 1.5 mol of C
9
H
8
O
3
. (b) 2.2 x 10
20
of Ag atom
(c) 3.0 x 10
22
of HI molecules
{ Ans (a) 246 g (b) 0.0432 g (c) 6.28 g }
Practice 3
A sample of suphur dioxide gas, SO
2
, contains 6.6 x 10
22
of oxygen, O,
atoms. Calculate (i) the number of S atoms (ii) the number of moles of
SO
2
(iii) the mass of SO
2
in the above sample.
{ Ans 3.3 x 10
22
S atom , (ii) 0.055 mol (iii) 3.52 g }
Practice 4
Calculate the number of (i) formula units of AlF
3
, (ii) F
-
ions and (iii)
Al
3+
ions and (iv) all the ions in 0.02 mol of the compound AlF
3
.

{ Ans : (i) 1.204 x 10
22
formula units , (ii) 3.612 x 10
22
F

ions (iii)
1.204 x 10
22
Al
3+
ions (iv) 4.82 x 10
22
ions }
Additional Problems
1. The carat is the unit of mass used by jewelers. One
carat is exactly 200mg. How many carbon atoms are
present in a 24-carat diamond?

2. One molecule of the antibiotic known as penicillin G
has a mass of 5.342 x 10
-21
g.What is the molar mass
of penicillin G?
Amount-mass-number relationships for
compounds.
Interconverting Moles, Mass, and
Number of Chemical Entities
Mass (g) = no. of moles x
no. of grams
1 mol
No. of moles = mass (g) x
no. of grams
1 mol
No. of entities = no. of moles x
6.022x10
23
entities
1 mol
No. of moles = no. of entities x
6.022x10
23
entities
1 mol
g
M
Percent Composition
Topic
1.6
1.6 Percent Composition
Percent (%) means parts per 100 parts
The percent composition of a compound is the
mass percent of each element in the compound
The molar mass represents the total mass, or
100%, of the compound
According to the Law of Definite Composition, the
percent composition must be the same no matter
what size sample is taken
E.g. the percent composition of water, H2O, is
11.19% and 88.79% O by mass
Percent composition of a compound can be
determined:
1) From knowing its formula
2) From experimental data
1.6 Percent Composition
Problem-solving strategy
1) Calculate the molar mass
2) Divide the total mass of each element in the formula by
the molar mass and multiply by 100
Percent Composition from Formula
Compound: X
a
Y
b


Mass % of element X = (atomic mass of X) x (a)
Molar mass of X
a
Y
b

Mass % of element Y = (atomic mass of Y) x (b)
Molar mass of X
a
Y
b




x 100%
x 100%
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
molar mass of compound
x 100%
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound
C
2
H
6
O
%C =
2 x (12.01 g)
46.07 g
x 100% = 52.14%
%H =
6 x (1.008 g)
46.07 g
x 100% = 13.13%
%O =
1 x (16.00 g)
46.07 g
x 100% = 34.73%
52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
Percent Composition
Exercise 1.8.1: Find the mass percent of Cl in C
2
Cl
4
F
2

because the percentage is less than 100 and
Cl is much heavier than the other atoms, the
number makes sense
C
2
Cl
4
F
2

% Cl by mass
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
Example 2.10: Determine the percent composition of CaCl
2

(Ca = 40.08, Cl = 35.45)
1.6 Percent Composition
Percent Composition from
Experimental Data
Problem-solving strategy

1) Calculate the mass of the compound formed
2) Divide the mass of each element by the total mass of
the compound and multiply by 100
Practice: Zinc oxide is a compound with many uses from
preventing sunburn to a pigment in white paint. When heated in
air, 1.63 g of zinc (Zn) combines with 0.40 g of oxygen (O2) to
form zinc oxide. Calculate the percent composition of the
compound formed
Given : 1.63 g Zn
0.40 g O2

Mass of the product formed (ZnO)
= 163 g Zn + 0.40 g O2
= 2.03 g ZnO

Percent for each element

Zn:


O:
1.63 g
2.03 g
x 100 = 80.3% Zn
0.40 g
2.03 g
x 100 = 20% O
Mass Percent as a Conversion Factor
The mass percent also tells you the mass of a constituent
element in 100 g of the compound
the fact that CCl
2
F
2
is 58.64% Cl by mass means that 100
g of CCl
2
F
2
contains 58.64 g Cl
This can be used as a conversion factor
100 g CCl
2
F
2
: 58.64 g Cl
1.6 Percent Composition
Exercise 1.8.2 : Table salt contains 39% of Na. Find the mass
of table salt containing 2.4 g of Na
because the mass of NaCl is more than 2x the mass of
Na, the number makes sense



100 g NaCl : 39 g Na
2.4 g Na, 39% Na
g NaCl
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g Na g NaCl
Exercise 1.8.3: Benzaldehyde is 79.2% carbon. What mass of
benzaldehyde contains 19.8 g of C?
because the mass of benzaldehyde is more than the
mass of C, the number makes sense




100 g benzaldehyde : 79.2 g C
19.8 g C, 79.2% C
g benzaldehyde
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g C g benzaldehyde
Conversion Factors in Chemical
Formulas
Chemical formulas have inherent in them
relationships between numbers of atoms and
molecules
or moles of atoms and molecules
These relationships can be used to convert
between amounts of constituent elements and
molecules
like percent composition
1.6 Percent Composition
Additional Problems
1. Myoglobin stores oxygen for metabolic processes in
muscle. Chemical analysis shows that it contains 0.34%
Fe by mass. What is the molar mass of myoglobin?
(There is one Fe atom per molecule).
2. The aluminium sulfate hydrate [Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
.xH
2
O]
contains 8.10 % Al by mass. Calculate x, that is the
number of water molecules associated with each
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
unit.
3. An oxybromate compound KBrO
x
, where x is unknown,
is analyzed and found to contain 52.92% Br. What is the
value of x?



Additional Problems
1. An element X forms an iodide (XI
3
) and a chloride
(XCl
3
). The iodide is quantitatively converted to the
chloride when it is heated in a stream of chlorine:
2 XI
3
+ 3Cl
2
2 XCl
3
+ 3I
2
If 0.5000 g of XI
3
is treated, 0.2360 g of XCl
3
is
obtained.
(a) Calculate the atomic weight of the element x
(a) Identify the element X
2. A mixture of NaBr and Na
2
SO
4
contains 29.96 % Na
by mass. Calculate the percent by mass of each
compound in the mixture.
Additional Problems
1. A mixture of CUSO
4
.5H
2
O and MgSO
4
.7H
2
O is
heated until all the water is lost. If 5.020g of mixture
gives 2.988g of the anhydrous salts, what is the
percent by mass of CuSO
4
.5H
2
O.




Empirical Formula
and
Molecular Formula
Topic
1.7
Empirical Formula
Simplest, whole-number ratio of the atoms of
elements in a compound
Can be determined from elemental analysis
masses of elements formed when a compound is
decompose, or that react together to form a
compound
combustion analysis
percent composition
1.7 Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
Finding an Empirical Formula
1. Convert the percentages to grams
a) assume you start with 100 g of the compound
b) skip if already in grams
2. Convert grams to moles
a) use molar mass of each element
3. Divide all by smallest number of moles
a) if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round to whole
number
4. Multiply all mole ratios by a number to make all whole numbers
a) if ratio ?.5, multiply all by 2; if ratio ?.33 or ?.67, multiply
all by 3; if ratio 0.25 or 0.75, multiply all by 4; etc.
b) skip if already whole numbers
1.7 Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
g C
mol C
g H mol H
empirical
formula
mole
ratio
whole
number
ratio
g O mol O
Example 2.5.1: Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined the following
mass percent composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.
Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.
Solution:
In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O

The conceptual plan is
1.7 Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
Given the molar mass:
1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g
calculate the moles of each element
The mole ratio of C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220
Divide the mole ratio by the smallest number of mole in the above
mole ratio to get the whole number mole ratio
1.7 Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
Whole number mole ratio:
C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 = 2.25 : 2 : 1
2.220 2.220 2.220

Choose a small number to multiply the mole ratio in order to get the
whole number mole ratio
Multiply by 4

C : H : O = 2.25 x 4 : 2 x 4 : 1 x 4
= 9 : 8 : 4

The empirical formula = C
9
H
8
O
4

Once youve learnt how to convert one unit to another according to
the conceptual plan, you can evaluate the empirical formula in a
table format.
Element A B C
% composition
by mass (g)
Relative atomic
mass

Number of
moles
Mole ratios
Simplest ratio
(whole number)
Empirical and molecular formula
Element C H O
% composition
by mass (g)

60.00

4.48

35.53
Relative atomic
mass


12.01

1.008

16.00
Number of
moles

4.996

4.44

2.220
Mole ratios 4.996
2.220
= 2.25
4.44
2.220
= 2
2.220
2.220
= 1
Simplest ratio
(x4)

9

8

4
Empirical formula
Practice 1:
Determine the empirical formula of magnetite, which
contains 72.4% Fe (55.85) and the rest oxygen (16.00)
1.7 Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
Molecular Formulas
The molecular formula is the true formula ,
representing the total number of atom of each
element present in one molecule of a compound

1.7 Empirical Formula and
Molecular Formula
- The molecular formula is (AxBy)n
Example 1.9.2: Find the molecular formula of butanedione
the molar mass of the calculated formula is in agreement with the
given molar mass



emp. form. = C
2
H
3
O;
MM = 86.03 g/mol
molecular formula
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:
and
Relationships:
Given:

Find:
Example 1.9.3: Benzopyrene has a molar mass of 252 g
and an empirical formula of C
5
H
3
. What is its molecular
formula? (C = 12.01, H=1.01)

C
5
= 5(12.01 g) = 60.05 g
H
3
= 3(1.01 g) = 3.03 g
C
5
H
3
= 63.08 g
Molecular formula = {C
5
H
3
} x 4 = C
20
H
12

Practice 2
Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6%
O and 5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x
10
-22
g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of
methyl salicylate.
{ Ans : C
3
H
8
O
3
}
Practice 3
The mass percent composition of an organic acid is given as 41.4%
C, 3.47% H, 55.1% O. 0.05 mol of this acid has a mass of 5.80g.
Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of this
acid.
{ Ans : CHO; C
4
H
4
O
4
}
Practice 4
An 0.648 g sample of isobutene contains 0.556g of carbon and the
rest is hydrogen. 0.5 mol of the isobutene has a mass of 28.5g.
What is the empirical formula and molecular formula of isobutene.
{ Ans : CH
2
; MW = 57 g mol
-1
; C
4
H
8
}
Combustion Analysis
Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely analyzed
through combustion in a chamber like this.
C is determined from the mass of CO
2
produced.
H is determined from the mass of H
2
O produced.
O is determined by difference after the C and H have been
determined.
Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the original
compound have been determined, the empirical formula can
be found

A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a
known mass of compound and weigh the amounts of product
made
g
CO
2
, H
2
O
mol
ratio
empirical
formula
mol
CO
2
, H
2
O
mol
C, H
g
C, H
g
O
mol
O
mol
C, H, O
Example 1.9.4
Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound containing only
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen produced 2.445 g CO
2
and
0.6003 g H
2
O. Determine the empirical formula of the compound

Solution:
Let the empirical formula to be C
x
H
y
O
z
Write a conceptual plan



Convert : g CO
2
mol CO
2
mol C
9 H
2
O mol H
2
O 2 mol H
Use the following relationship:
Molar mass of CO
2
= 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol
Molar mass of H
2
O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol
1mol CO
2
= 1 mol C; 1mol H
2
O = 2 mol H
Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H
Calculate the grams and moles of O
Mass of O = Mass of compound (mass of C + mass of H)
=

0.8233 g (0.6673 g + 0.06715 g) = 0.0889 g O
Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
Divide by the smallest mole
C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
0.00556 0.00556 0.00556
= 10 : 12 : 1
The empirical formula = C
10
H
12
O
Practice 1
The smell of dirty gym socks is caused by the compound caproic
acid. Combustion of 0.844 g of caproic acid produced 0.784 g of
H
2
O and 1.92 g of CO
2
. If the molar mass of caproic acid is 116.2
g/mol, what is the molecular formula of caproic acid? (Molar mass
C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00)
{Ans : C
3
H
6
O ; C
6
H
12
O
2
}
Additional Exercise
1. An organic compound was found to contain only C, H,
and Cl. When a 1.50 g sample of compound was
completely combusted in air 3.52g of CO
2
was formed.
In a separate experiment the chlorine in a 1.0 g sample
of the compound was converted to 1.27 g of AgCl.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
2. Ferrocene, first synthesized in 1951, was the first
organic iron compound with Fe-C bonds. An
understanding of the structure of ferrocene gave rise to
new ideas about chemical bonding and led to the
preparation of many useful compounds, In combustion
analysis of ferrocene, which contains only Fe, C and H,
a 0.9437 g of sample produced 2.233 g of CO
2
and
0.457 g of H
2
O. What is the empirical formula of
ferrocene?
Additional Exercise
1. Lysine, an essential amino acid in the human body,
contains C,H,O and N. In one experiment, the
complete combustion of 2.175 g of lysine gave 3.94
g Co2 and 1.89 g H2O. In a separate experiment,
1.873 g of lysine gave 0.43g g of NH3.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of lysine.
(b) The approximate molar mass of lysine is 150 g.
What is the molecular formula of the compound?
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Limiting Reactants
1.8
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How Many Cookies Can I Make?
You can make cookies
until you run out of one
of the ingredients.
Once this family runs out
of sugar, they will stop
making cookies (at least
any cookies you would
want to eat).
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How Many Cookies Can I Make?
In this example the sugar
would be the limiting
reactant, because it will
limit the amount of
cookies you can make.
An ice cream sundae analogy for limiting reactant.
1.8 Limiting Reactants
Limiting Reactants
The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the
smallest stoichiometric amount.
In other words, its the reactant that will be completely
used up in the reaction thus, limit the amount of
product form
The reactant that is not limiting is in excess some of
this reactant will be left over.

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Theoretical Yield
The theoretical yield is the maximum
amount of product that can be made.
In other words its the amount of product
possible as calculated through the stoichiometry
problem.
This is different from the actual yield, which
is the amount one actually produces and
measures.
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Percent Yield
One finds the percent yield by comparing
the amount actually obtained (actual yield)
to the amount it was possible to make
(theoretical yield).
Actual Yield
Theoretical Yield
Percent Yield = x 100
Problem-Solving Strategy for Limiting
Reactant Problems

1. Calculate the amount of product (moles or grams as needed)
formed from each reactants
2. Determine which reactant is limiting (the reactant that gives the
least amount of product is the limiting reactant; the other
reactant is in excess.
3. Once we know the limiting reactant, the amount of product
formed can be determined. It is the amount determined by the
limiting reactant
4. If we need to know how much the other reactant remains, we
calculate the amount of the other reactant required to react
with the limiting reactant , then subtract this amount from the
starting quantity of the reactant. This gives the amount of that
substance that remains unreacted



Limiting
reactant







2 mol N
2
: 1 Si
3
N
4
; 3 mol Si : 1 Si
3
N
4
1.20 mol Si, 1.00 mol N
2

mol Si
3
N
4

Solution:
Conceptual Plan:


Relationships:
Given:
Find:
mol N
2
mol Si
3
N
4

mol Si mol Si
3
N
4

Pick least
amount
Limiting
reactant and
theoretical
yield
Theoretical yield
Example 2.6.3
How many moles of Si
3
N
4
can be made from 1.20 moles of Si and 1.00
moles of N
2
in the reaction 3 Si + 2 N
2
Si
3
N
4
?

Practice 2.6.3
Consider the reaction between iron (III) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
and
carbon monoxide, CO.
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3CO 2Fe + 3CO
2
In one process, 213 g of Fe
2
O
3
are reacted with 140 g of
CO. (a) calculate the mass (in grams) of Fe formed. (b)
How many moles of the excess reagent is left at the end
of the reaction?
{ Ans : (a) 2.66 mol = 149g (b) 1 mol }
1.8 Limiting Reactants
Practice 2.6.4
In one experiment x grams of CS
2
is mixed with y grams
of NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.

CS
2
+ NaOH Na
2
CS
3
+ Na
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O

At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na
2
CO
3
is formed
while 3.3 g of CS
2
is left unreacted in the reaction vessel.
All the NaOH in the vessel is completely consumed.
a) Balance the above equation
b) Calculate the amount of CS
2
(x grams) and NaOH
(y grams) added to the reaction vessel at the beginning of
the reaction.
{ Ans : x = 19.49 g ; y =17.0 g }
1.8 Limiting Reactants

TiO
2
(s) 2 C(s) Ti(s) 2 CO(g)
Example 2.6.4:
When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of TiO
2
in the
reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are obtained. Find the limiting reactant,
theoretical yield, and percent yield.

kg
TiO
2

kg
C
}
smallest
amount is
from
limiting
reactant
smallest
mol Ti
Relationship required :
1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO
2
= 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO
2
: 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
smallest moles of Ti
limiting reactant
theoretical yield
limiting reactant = TiO
2
, theoretical yield = 52.9 kg
percent yield = 80.9%
Because Ti has lower molar mass than TiO
2
, the T.Y. makes sense
and the percent yield makes sense as it is less than 100%
Practice 2.6.5
How many grams of N
2
(g) can be made from 9.05 g of
NH
3
reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH
3
(g) + 3 CuO(s) N
2
(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H
2
O(l)
If 4.61 g of N
2
are made, what is the percent yield?

Solutions
1.9
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1.9 Solutions
Solutions are defined as
homogeneous mixtures of
two or more pure
substances.
The solvent is present in
greatest abundance.
All other substances are
solutes (present in the
smallest amount).
169
Solutions
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Solution Chemistry
It is helpful to pay attention to exactly what
species are present in a reaction mixture
(i.e., solid, liquid, gas, aqueous solution).
If we are to understand reactivity, we must
be aware of just what is changing during the
course of a reaction.
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How Does a Solution Form?
As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute
particles apart and surrounds, or solvates, them.
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Solutions
The intermolecular forces
between solute and
solvent particles must be
strong enough to compete
with those between solute
particles and those
between solvent particles.
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Dissociation
When an ionic
substance dissolves in
water, the solvent pulls
the individual ions from
the crystal and solvates
them.
This process is called
dissociation.
Dissociation
An electrolyte is a
substances that
dissociates into ions when
dissolved in water.
A nonelectrolyte may
dissolve in water, but it
does not dissociate into
ions when it does so.

Concentration of Solution

Concentration
To describe a solution, you need to
describe the components and their
relative amounts
Concentration = amount of solute in a
given amount of solution

1.9 Concentration of Solutions

Solution Concentration
Qualitatively, solutions are
often described as dilute or
concentrated
Dilute solutions have a small
amount of solute compared to
solvent
Concentrated solutions have
a large amount of solute
compared to solvent
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Molarity
Molarity is one way to measure the concentration
of a solution.
Since volume is temperature-dependent, molarity
can change with temperature
moles of solute
volume of solution in liters
Molarity (M) =

1.9 Concentration of Solutions

Molarity and Dissociation
The molarity of the ionic compound allows you to
determine the molarity of the dissolved ions
CaCl
2
(aq) = Ca
2+
(aq) + 2 Cl

(aq)
A 1.0 M CaCl
2
(aq) solution contains 1.0 moles of CaCl
2

in each liter of solution
1 L = 1.0 moles CaCl
2
, 2 L = 2.0 moles CaCl
2
Because each CaCl
2
dissociates to give one Ca
2+
, a 1.0
M CaCl
2
solution is 1.0 M Ca
2+
1 L = 1.0 moles Ca
2+
, 2 L = 2.0 moles Ca
2+
Because each CaCl
2
dissociates to give 2 Cl

, a 1.0 M
CaCl
2
solution is 2.0 M Cl

1 L = 2.0 moles Cl

, 2 L = 4.0 moles Cl

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Mixing a Solution
To create a solution of a
known molarity, one weighs
out a known mass (and,
therefore, number of moles)
of the solute.
The solute is added to a
volumetric flask, and solvent
is added to the line on the
neck of the flask.

1.9 Concentration of Solutions

Preparing 1 L of a 1.00 M NaCl Solution
Example 2.6.5: Find the molarity of a solution that has 25.5 g
KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution
because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the
answer makes sense




1 mol KBr = 119.00 g, M = moles/L
25.5 g KBr, 1.75 L solution
molarity, M
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
g KBr mol KBr
L soln
M
Example 2.6.6: How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH contain
0.255 mol NaOH?
because each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH, it makes
sense that 0.255 mol should require a little more than 2 L




0.125 mol NaOH = 1 L solution
0.125 M NaOH, 0.255 mol NaOH
liters, L
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
mol NaOH L soln
Example 2.6.7: Determine the mass of CaCl
2
(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M solution
because each L has 1.50 mol CaCl
2
, it makes sense
that 1.75 L should have almost 3 moles




1.50 mol CaCl
2
= 1 L solution; 110.98 g CaCl
2
= 1 mol
1.50 M CaCl
2
, 1.75 L
mass CaCl
2
, g
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
mol CaCl
2
L soln g CaCl
2

Dilution
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more concentrated
solution.
One can also dilute a more concentrated solution by
Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a
new volumetric flask, and
Adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask.
Dilution
Add Solvent
Moles of solute
before dilution (i)
Moles of solute
after dilution (f)
=
M
i
V
i
M
f
V
f

=
The molarity of the new solution can be determined from the equation
Dilution
Example 2.6.9: To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of
15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
because the solution is diluted by a factor of 5, the volume
should increase by a factor of 5, and it does



M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

V
1
= 0.200L, M
1
= 15.0 M, M
2
= 3.00 M
V
2
, L
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
V
1
, M
1
, M
2
V
2

Example 2.23: What is the concentration of a solution prepared by diluting
45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO
3
to 135.0 mL?
because the solution is diluted by a factor of 3, the
molarity should decrease by a factor of 3, and it does



M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

V
1
= 45.0 mL, M
1
= 8.25 M, V
2
= 135.0 mL
M
2
, L
Check:
Solution:
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:
Given:
Find:
V
1
, M
1
, V
2
M
2


1.9 Concentration of Solutions

Practice 2.6.6
How would you prepare 200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution from a
2.0 M solution?
{ Ans: 25 mL}
Practice 2.6.7
A 200.0 cm
3
sample of oxalic acid solution contains 8.584 g of
H
2
C
2
O
4
. 25.0 cm
3
of this acid solution is withdrawn and diluted
to 500.0 cm
3
by adding water in a 500ml volumetric flask. What
is the molarity of the final solution?
{ Ans : 0.48 M; 2.383 x 10-2 M }
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Using Molarities in
Stoichiometric Calculations
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Example 2.24
3 Cu + 8 HNO
3
3 Cu(NO
3
)
2
+ 2 NO + 4 H
2
O
In an experiment x grams of Cu reacted completely with 40 cm
3

of 0.5 M HNO
3
solution.
a) Calculate the value of x.
b) How many moles of NO will be formed in the above
reaction ?
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Solution: Conceptual Plan
Vol, Molarity
HNO
3

Mol HNO
3
Mol Cu
g Cu
Mol = M x V
g Cu = mol Cu x MM Cu
Mol Cu = 3
Mol HNO
3
8
MM Cu = 63.55 g/mol
(a) g Cu = (0.5 mol/L x 0.04 L)HNO
3
x 3 mol Cu x 63.55 g
8 mol HNO
3
1 mol
= 0.48 g
`
(b)
Mol HNO
3
Mol NO

Mol NO = 2 = 1
Mol HNO
3
8 4
Mol NO formed = (0.5 x 0.04)mol HNO
3
x 1 mol NO
4 mol HNO
3

= 0.005 mol
3 Cu + 8 HNO
3
3 Cu(NO
3
)
2
+ 2 NO + 4 H
2
O;
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Practice 2.81
11.9 g of NH
3
is produced when x grams of (NH
4
)
2
SO
4

reacted completely in v cm
3
of 2.5 M NaOH according
to the equation below :
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
+ 2NaOH Na
2
SO
4
+ 2H
2
O + 2NH
3

Calculate the values of x and v.
{ Ans : x = 46.2 g ; v = 280 cm
3
}
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Inc.
Titration
Titration is an analytical technique
in finding the conc. of a solute in a
solution

A solution of
accurately known
concentration is
gradually added to
another solution of
unknown conc. until
the chemical reaction
between the two
solutions is complete.
Titration
1.12 Solution Stoichiometry
Example 2.7.1: What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to completely
react with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO
3
)
2
in the reaction 2 KCl(aq) +
Pb(NO
3
)
2
(aq) PbCl
2
(s) + 2 KNO
3
(aq)?
2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO
3
)
2
(aq) PbCl
2
(s) + 2 KNO
3
(aq)?
Let Molarity of KCl = M
a
,

Molarity of Pb(NO
3
)
2
=

M
b

Volume of KCl = V
a
, Volume of Pb(NO
3
)
2
= V
b
Stoichiometry coeffient
a, b = 2,1 for KCl,Pb(NO
3
)
2
, resp.
Use the relatioship
M
a
V
a
= a

M
b
V
b
b
M
a
x 0.150 = 2
0.175 x 0.150 1
M
a
= 2 x 0.175 = 0.350 M
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Practice 2.7.1
43.8 mL of 0.107 M HCl is to neutralize 37.6 mL of Ba(OH)
2

solution. What is the molarity of the base?

2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)
2
(aq) BaCl
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(aq)
{Ans: 0.0623 M}

Practice 2.7.2
Calculate the molarity of phosphoric acid, H
3
PO
4
, if 40.0 cm
3
of it
requires 25.0 cm
3
of 0.545 M potassium hydroxide, KOH for its
neutralization. Balance the equation below for the neutralization
reaction described above.

H
3
PO
4
+ KOH K
3
PO
4
+ H
2
O
{ Ans : 0.11 M }
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Practice 2.7.3
Aluminium reacts with sulphuric acid to produce hydrogen gas
and aluminium sulphate.

2Al + 3H
2
SO
4
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 3H
2
If a reaction vessel contains 2.4 g of Al and 200 cm
3
of 0.5M
H
2
SO
4
,
a) which compound is the limiting reactant?
b) How many moles of H
2
can be produced?
c) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end of the
reaction?
{ Ans : (a) H
2
SO
4
(b) 0.1 mol (c) 0.022 mol = 0.594 g}
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Practice 2.7.4
In one experiment x grams of CS
2
is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced equation
below.

CS
2
+ NaOH Na
2
CS
3
+ Na
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O

At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na
2
CO
3
is formed while 3.3 g
of CS
2
is left unreacted in the reaction vessel. All the NaOH in
the vessel is completely consumed.
a) Balance the above equation
b) Calculate the amount of CS
2
(x grams) and NaOH (y grams)
added to the reaction vessel at the beginning of the reaction.
{ Ans : x = 19.49 g ; y =17.0 g }
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Other Ways of
Expressing
Concentrations of
Solutions
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Concentration can be expressed in terms of:

1. Molality (mol/kg)
2. Mole Fraction (Xa)
3. Percent by Mass (w/w %)
4. Percent by Volume (v/v %)
5. Percent mass per volume (w/v %)

200
Molality (m or mol/kg solvent)
Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent
defined in terms of amount of solvent, not solution
like the others
Does not vary with temperature
because based on masses, not volumes
Mole Fraction, X
A
The mole fraction is the fraction of the moles of
one component in the total moles of all the
components of the solution
Total of all the mole fractions in a solution = 1
Unitless
The mole percentage is the percentage of the
moles of one component in the total moles of all the
components of the solution; (mole fraction x 100%)
,nA
,ntotal
Example 2.7
Calculate the molarity and molality of a solution prepared by mixing
17.2 g of C
2
H
6
O
2
with 0.500 kg of H
2
O to make 515 mL of solution?
What is the mol fraction of C
2
H
6
O
2
in the

solution?
M = mol/L, 1 mol C
2
H
6
O
2
= 62.07 g, 1 mL = 0.001 L
g C
2
H
6
O
2
mol C
2
H
6
O
2
mL soln L soln

M

Solution: Conceptual Plan:
1
554 . 0 554 . 0
5 . 0
2771 . 0
Molality

kg mol or m
kg
mol
Total mol = 0.2771 + 27.753 mol = 28.03 mol
mol 27.753 mol
016 . 18
1000 5 . 0
O H Mol
2

x
3
O H C
10 89 . 9
03 . 28
2771 . 0
2 6 2

x
205
What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH) solution whose density
is 0.927 g/mL?
m =
moles of solute
mass of solvent (kg)
M =
moles of solute
liters of solution
Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution mass of solute
= 927 g 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg
m =
moles of solute
mass of solvent (kg)
=
5.86 moles C
2
H
5
OH
0.657 kg solvent
= 8.92 m
Practice 2.7.5
A solution is made by dissolving 34.0 g of NH
3
in 2.00 x 10
3
mL of
water. Calculate the
a) molality of the solution
b) the mole fraction of NH
3
in the solution
(MM
NH3
= 17.04 g/mol, d
H2O
= 1.00 g/mL)
{ Ans : 1.02 m, 0.0180}

Practice 2.7.6
Calculate the
a) Molarity and molality of solution (i)
b) Molality of solution (ii)
(i) An aqueous solution consists of 6.55% by mass of glucose
(C
6
H
12
O
6
).
(ii) 6.2 M H
2
SO
4
(aq)
c) What is the mole fraction of the solute in both the solutions.
(MM
H2SO4
= 98.08 g/mol, d
soln
= 1.80 g/mL)

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Percent by Mass (%w/w)
Mass % of A =
(%w/w)
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
100
Concentrations show the relationship between the
amount of solute and the amount of solvent
12% (w/w) sugar solution: 12 g sugar per 100 g
solution or 12 kg sugar 1n 100 kg solution
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Percent by Volume (% v/v)
Volume % of A =
(%v/v)
Volume of A in solution
total volume of solution
100
Concentrations show the relationship between
the volume of solute and the volume of solution
22%(v/v) ethanol solution: 22 mL EtOH per 100
mL solution
1.9 Solution Stoichiometry
Percent Concentration
Example 2.7.2: What volume of 10.5% by mass soda
contains 78.5 g of sugar? Density of the solution 1.04 g/mL
the unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as the
mass of sugar 10% the volume of solution
Check:
Solve:
100 g soln = 10.5 g sugar, 1 mL soln = 1.04 g
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
78.5 g sugar
volume, mL
Given:
Find:
g solute g soln mL soln
Parts Solute in Parts Solution
Parts per million = parts of solute in every 1
million parts solution
if a solution is 36 ppm by volume, then
there are 36 mL of solute in 1 million mL of
solution
1mg/L (1 mg of arsenic in 1L in drinking
water or 1mg/Kg (1 mg of Ca in 1 Kg of
soil)
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Parts per Million and
Parts per Billion
ppm =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
10
6

Parts per Million (ppm)
Parts per Billion (ppb)
ppb =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
10
9

Additional Problems

1. Calculate the mass of solute and mass of solvent
(water) from each prepared solution
a). 125 g of 1.0% of NaNO
3
b). 300 g of 0.115m of C
2
H
6
O
2


c). 125 mL of 0.1M of NaNO
3
2. Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that must
be added to 5.00g urea (NH
2
)
2
CO in preparation of a
16.2% by mass solution
3. The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of
methanol (CH3OH) is 0.976 g/mL. What is the
molality of the solution? (MW= 32.04g)



Thank You.