Sewers Systems,

Appurtenances,
Construction and
Maintenance
Powerpoint Presented by
Omictin, Jay Ann S.
Egam, Kier J.
Design Process
The design of a sewer system includes both hydraulic and
structural considerations as well as economic ones.
----by self understanding, it means that the design of a sewer system must be economical,
structurally safe and hydraulically effective!

The design process includes the (1) initial survey and
scoping, (2) the preliminary design, and (3) the detailed
design, all of which are tempered by cost considerations.
As with most engineering design the process is iterative.
---by my own opinion, the design process is dictated by the projects budget or funding and the
design process is a cycle from the word iterative itself.
REFERENCE: Sewers Replacement and New Construction by Geoffrey Read
(1) Survey and Scoping
An assessment of the area to be served must be made
initially by studying maps of the area, determining the
population to be served, and making some estimates of the
flows that will drain into the proposed system.
---by personal experience, the OBRERO thesis


(1) Survey and Scoping continuation
Much of the early work can be done from contour
maps if they are available and up to date.
(Through the use of contour lines, an experienced topographic map reader can
easily visualize the direction of stream flow and the shape of the terrain.)
Perhaps one of the most important sources of information on a
topographic map is the date of revision, printed to the left of the scale.
Although large scale topographic features (such as mountains) take
millions of years to be formed and eroded, smaller scale features
change on a much more rapid scale. The course of a river channel may
change fairly rapidly as a result of flooding, landslides may alter
topography significantly, roads are added or go out of use,
etc. Because of these changes, it is important to have a fairly recent (or
recently updated) topographic map to ensure accuracy. On most
topographic maps, the date of the initial publication will be shown,
along with the most recent revision of the map
Source:http://geology.isu.edu/geostac/Field_Exercise/topomaps/topo_map.htm
(1) Survey and Scoping continuation
The Philippine topographic maps at scale 1:250,000 were produced
with information from the Philippine Coast and Geodetic Survey, Army
Map Service, Corps of Engineer, US Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bureau
of Public Highways, and other agencies. These maps are
downloadable and can be printed on an 8 x 11.5 inch bond paper.

Source:
NAMRIA (National Mapping and Resource Information Authority)
Official Website
(2) Preliminary Design
Typically a 1/2500-scale contour map is required to carry out the
preliminary design, which entails determining an initial proposed
layout of the sewer network.
Sewerage networks are normally laid in straight lines between access
chambers.
In the past, the maximum distance between access chambers on
straight line sewers was taken to be approximately 100 metres, but
more recently the allowable distance between chambers has been
increased and may be up to 300 metres, depending on the diameter
of the sewer.
(2) Preliminary Design continuation...
300m
(2) Preliminary Design continuation...
Construction officials and workers gather around a 26-foot deep-
access chamber to the city's main sewer line on Willow Street in
Manchester on Wednesday. (DAVID LANE/UNION LEADER)
(2) Preliminary Design continuation...
In order to minimise the depth of the sewer, the pipe gradient should
follow approximately the ground surface gradient, although the actual
gradient of the pipe will be dictated predominantly by hydraulic
considerations.

The sewer network must pass close to the properties it is intended to
serve and in most cases this means that the main sewers follow the
street network, with subsidiary pipes (or laterals) connecting
individual properties to the main sewer.

(2) Preliminary Design continuation...
The method of construction should also be considered at the preliminary
layout stage, particularly if a trenchless method is to be considered. It is
possible with trenchless methods to consider a sewer route passing under
obstacles such as buildings, water courses, and railways. Such a route
would not be possible using conventional open-trench sewer installation
techniques. If a trenchless method such as microtunnelling is being
considered, the location of the drive and reception shafts must be chosen
carefully, as these will also form access chambers on the completed sewer.
The excavations for these shafts will be open for some time during the
construction process and they will therefore need to be positioned where
they will cause minimum disruption to traffic flows and not, for example, at
a busy road intersection.
What is Trenchless Technology?
The International Society of Trenchless Technology gives the following
definition:
Trenchless technology covers any techniques, processes or procedures,
including the equipment, machines and materials involved, which
minimises or eliminates the need for surface excavation or reduces
environmental damage or reduces the associated costs for underground
work.
Trenchless technologies fall into three broad categories, being processes
for: the installation of new assets; rehabilitation of existing assets and
replacement of assets. It also includes support systems for locating
services and ground conditions and for assessing the condition of assets,
e.g. closed circuit TV (CCTV).

(2) Preliminary Design continuation...
The next step in the design is to draw a longitudinal section, or
profile, of the ground surface along the proposed route of the sewer.
These sections are normally drawn with a horizontal scale of 1/2500
and a vertical scale of 1/250. Suitable preliminary gradients for each
sewer length can then be selected and also drawn on the section.
Gradients are selected to ensure that all flow can be accommodated
at an adequate velocity through the system. At the same time, the
designer will attempt to limit the depth of the sewer below the
ground surface, as this will have a significant impact on the cost. At
this stage, the designer must use his or her past experience to arrive
at a preliminary solution, which will subsequently be tested and
amended by more rigorous calculation.
Hydraulic design
Once the preliminary layout and longitudinal section of the sewer network has
been decided, the diameter of each pipe must be calculated and the gradient
checked. To do this, it is first necessary to estimate the maximum likely flow in
each pipe, and this will depend on whether or not the sewer is to carry surface
water, foul water, or both. Foul water flows are estimated on the basis of the
average daily per capita water consumption multiplied by the number of people
served by the specific section of the network under consideration. This provides
an estimate of the average flow, which is then multiplied by a factor to give an
estimate of the maximum or peak flow. The calculation of surface water flows is
more complex and is based on hydrological principles describing the relationship
between precipitation and runoff. The peak flow depends not only on rainfall
characteristics, the area and shape of the catchment contributing to flow at each
section in the network, and the nature of the ground surface and the underlying
soil, but also on the diameter and gradient of the sewer network itself.
Determination of sewer size
The diameter and gradient of a sewer must be chosen to meet two
basic criteria. First, the pipe must be able to accommodate the
calculated peak flow rate, and second, the velocity of flow must be
sufficiently high to keep the sewer clean and free of grit and other
solids that could settle in the invert of the pipe. This minimum (or
self-cleansing) velocity is usually taken to be between 0.90 m/s for
small diameter pipes to 0.75 m/s for larger pipes.
Structural design
A sewer, like any other pipeline, is a complex structure whose structural
integrity relies on the properties of the pipeline material, the diameter and
wall thickness of the pipe, and the vertical and horizontal support provided
by the surrounding soil and other supporting structures. The loading on the
sewer is difficult to accurately determine as it depends on internal
pressures within the pipe, the depth of the pipe, the width of the trench in
which the pipe is laid, the varying depth of the water table, the nature of
the soil above the pipe, and loads from traffic and structures superimposed
at the surface. This complexity of soil conditions and superimposed loads,
coupled with a lack of precise, easy to use analytical tools for modelling the
interaction between the pipe, the soil and the superimposed loads, means
that a pragmatic and empirical approach to the structural design of sewers
must be adopted.
Structural design continuation...
There are four main aspects of the structural design of pipelines to
consider, three of which relate to the operation of the pipeline and
the fourth concerns the transportation and installation of the pipe.
The capacity of the pipe to resist internal pressure
The capacity to resist external forces
The capacity to resist stresses generated from movement
and/or dimensional changes of the pipeline.
INTERNAL PRESSURE
Although internal pressure does not
normally need to be considered in
gravity sewers, it may be a major
consideration in pumping mains.
Resistance to internal pressure is
determined by the wall thickness and
the strength of the pipe material and,
for thin-walled pipes, can be analysed
using simple ring design procedures.

EXTERNAL FORCES UNDER OPERATIONAL
CONDITIONS
External forces arise from the load applied by the soil above the pipe, any
external water pressure, and loads on the surface from traffic and
structures. In general, the soil load increases with the depth of the pipe,
while the traffic load decreases with depth. Shallow pipes thus need
special protection against the high traffic loading and very deep pipes need
to be protected against the high soil loads. Near the surface, traffic loading
predominates and, as depth of cover increases, the combined traffic and
soil load actually decreases to a minimum value and then increases as soil
loading starts to predominate.
It is important to note that a buried pipe is a composite structure
consisting of both the pipe itself and the surrounding soil. Both the soil
loading on a pipe and the support given to a pipe by the surrounding soil
depend not only on the depth, but also on the pipediameter, the material
properties of the pipe, the nature of the soil, and the trench width.
RIGID PIPE DESIGN
The bedding around the pipe has
a significant impact on the
overall strength of the pipeline,
and this led to the development
of the concept of bedding factors
and to their inclusion in design
codes. These bedding factors
present a way of including the
enhancement provided by
embedment in the design of
buried rigid pipelines.

Future developments
Most engineers are still unaware of the potential for installing sewers using
trenchless techniques, such as microtunnelling, pipebursting, and
directional drilling. These techniques not only significantly reduce traffic
disruption, they also offer the opportunity for a completely different
approach to the preliminary layout and design of sewerage networks.
When open trench methods are used, the depth of the pipe is a major cost
factor. However, if trenchless methods are used, increased depth does not
significantly affect the cost and this means that designers can be offered
the option of installing sewers at greater depths without a cost penalty.
Also, with trenchless methods it is possible to route a pipe under obstacles
that it would be inconceivable to do using open trench methods. These
factors mean that a completely different approach to routing and
preliminary design of sewer networks can beadopted, as long as this is
taken into consideration at an early stage in the design process.
Future developments continuation...
Sophisticated computer-based methods for the hydraulic design of
sewers are now available and in common use. This has facilitated a
much more effective and efficient use of sewer pipes, not only for
conveying waste water, but also for storing it during peak flow
conditions and thus minimising pollution of water courses from storm
water overflows.
Future developments continuation...
Water authorities and companies are now approaching the problem of
water and waste water engineering from the perspective of demand
management rather than supply management in other words, attempting
to manage the demand for water rather than continually increasing supply
to match an increasing demand. This raises issues of not only reducing
domestic waste water, but also reducing surface water runoff into
sewerage systems. Approaches such as recycling domestic grey water and
harvesting rainwater from roof catchments will have a considerable
influence on the flows expected in sewerage systems. Another approach is
that of porous pavements, designed to allow surface water to infiltrate into
the soil rather than being channelled into sewerage systems. This will lead
to a much more integrated approach to the design of urban developments.
Future developments continuation...
The structural behaviour of the soil/pipe composite is still not fully
understood. In particular, the implications of soil loading and support
on pipes installed using trenchless methods needs to be more fully
researched. A greater understanding of this soil/pipe behaviour could
lead to better and more economic use of pipes and may identify
further economic benefits, such as improved life expectancy, of
trenchless methods.
Sewer Appurtenances
REFERENCE: Waste Water Engineering by Dr. B. C. Punmia and Ashok
Kr. Jain

Sewer Appurtenances are those structures of the sewerage system
which are constructed at suitable interval and other locations along a
sewer line, to assist in efficient operation and maintenance of the
system. Following are important sewer appurtenances.

(1)Inlets (2) Catch basins (3) Clean outs (4) Manholes (5) Drop
manholes (6) Lamp holes (7) Flushing tanks (8) Grease and oil traps (9)
Inverted siphons (10) Storm regulators.


(1) Inlets
An inlet is a device meant to admit the storm water or surface wash
and convey it into a storm sewer or a combined sewer.
Inlets are not necessary in case of separate sewers.
Inlets are of three types: (i) curb inlet or vertical inlet, and (ii) gutter
inlet or horiontal inlet and (iii) combination inlet, each being either
depressed or flush depending upon their elevation with respect to
the pavement surface.
Combination inlets are composed of a curb and gutter inlet acting as
a single unit. Normally, the gutter inlet is placed right in front of the
curb inlet but it may be displaced in an overlapping or end-to-end
position.

(1) Inlets continuation...
(1) Inlets continuation...
(2) Catch Basins
Catch basin also known as catchpit, is a special type of inlet, in which
basin is provided which allows grit, sand and debris ets., flowing in
with storm water, settle out.
The outlet is usually trapped to prevent escape of odours from the
sewers and to retain floating matter.
The settled matter is taken out periodically.

(3) Clean Outs
Clean Outs are an inclined pipe with its one end
connected to the underground sewer line and the
other end brought upto ground level, with a
proper cover at the top.
They are generally provided at upper ends of
lateral sewers in place of man holes.
They are meant for clearing out the lateral
sewers.
For cleaning purposes, the cover is taken out and
water is forced into the clean out pipe.
For removing larger obstruction, flexible rod may
be inserted or other methods, described in the
previous chapter are adopted.

(4) Manholes
It is a masonry or R.C.C. chamber constructed on the alignment o a
sewer for providing access to the sewer for the purposes of
inspection, testing, cleaning and removal of obstructions from the
sewer line.
They also help in joining sewer lines or in changing the direction or
alignmentor both.
A manhole sometimes receives the contribution of sewage from
sewers of various sizes and coming from various directions.
Manholes are provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or
change of diameter.
(4) Manholes continuation...
On straight reaches, manholes are provided at convenient spacings
which depend upon the size of sewers. The larger the diameter of the
sewer, the greater the manholes will also depend upon the nature of
sewer cleaning devices in use.

(5) Drop Manhole
Drop Manhole is a special type of manhole on a sewer line which is
constructed to provide a connection between a high level branch
sewer to a low level main sewer.
When a branch sewer enters a manhole by more than 0.5 to 0.6 m
above the main sewer, the sewege is not allowed to fall directly into
the manhole, to avoid the possibilies of sewage being throuwn on
persons entering the working chamber of manhole.
The construction of drop manhole avoids unnecessary steep gradient
of branch sewer thus reducing the amount of earth work.

(6) Lamp Holes
Lamp holes are special openings, constructed to join a hole in the
sewer and the ground, for the purpose of lowering a lamp inside the
sewer.
A lamphole may consist of either a vertical concrete or stoneware
pipe connected to the sewer through a Tee-junction.
Lampholes may be located when (i) there is change in the direction or
gradient of the sewer in between two closely spaced manholes. (ii)
construction of manhole is difficult. (iii) spacing of manhole is
considerable. A lamphole servers the following purposes. (i)
inspection (ii) flushing and (iii) ventilation.

(7) Flushing Tanks
Flushing tanks are devices or arrangements which holds water and then
throws it into the sewer for the purpose of flushing it.
It can be operated either manually or automatically.
Sewer laid on flat gradients may not produce self-cleansing velocity and
may get blocked frequently. They can be cleaned with of help of such
flushing tanks.
Apart from this, flushing tanks are also provided near the dead ends of
sewers. The quantity of water added in one flush is about 1600 litres.
Flushing tanks should have sufficient capacity to hold water temporarily to
serve the required purpose.
Generally, the capacity of flushing tank is kept equal to one tenth of the
cubical contents of the sewer line served by it.

(8) Grease and Oil traps
Grease and oil traps are specially built chambers on the sewers to
exclude grease and oil from sewage before they enter the sewer line.
Such traps are located near those sources, such as automobile repair
workshops, garages, kitchens of hotes, oil and grease industries,
which contribute grease and oil in their waste waters.
(8) Grease and Oil traps continuation...
It is essential to exclude grease and oil from the sewage due to the
following reasons:
Grease and oil entering into the sewer lines will stick to the interior surface of the
sewer conduit and will become hard, thus causing obstruction to flow.
Presence of oil and grease in the sewer increases the possibilities of explosion in
the sewer lines.
Due to presence of oil and grease in the sewage, floating matter will have
tendency to stick to the sides of sewer.
Presence of oil and grease in the wastewater causes difficulties in the treatment
of waste water.
Presence of oil and grease on the surface of wastewater prevents oxygen to
penetrate, due to which aerobic bacteria will not survive and hence organic
matter will not be decomposed. This will give rise to bad odours.
A grease trap has Specially designed walls to keep most of the F.O.G. in one side of tank,
and then has pipe baffles to keep F.O.G. from escaping the tank, or coming back into
restaurant. If the F.O.G. were to enter the sewer system it could do permanent damage to
the pumps, sewer mains, and to equipment used to treat other waste in the system.
(9) Inverted Siphons
When a sewer line dips below the hydraulic grade line, it is called an
inverted siphon.
The purpose is to carry the sewer under the obstruction, such as
roadway, railway, stream, river etc., and regain as much elevation as
possible.
The sewage through such a pipe line (or inverted siphon) will flow
under pressure which is greater than atmospheric. However, in the
inverted siphon, the hydraulic gradient line is above the flow line,
whereas in true siphon the hydraulic line is below the flow line,
whereas in true siphon the hydraulic line is below the flow line. Hence
the term inverted siphonis misnamed as it is not a siphon.
(10) Storm Regulators
Storm regulators are the appurtenances which are constructed for
combined sewerage system, so as to permit the diversion of stowm
water when the discharge exceeds a certain value.
. Generally, a combined sewer is designed for a discharge equal to 3
to 6 times the dry weather flow. Sometimes, when the intensity of
rain is more, the quantity of storm water becomes enormous. This
excess quantity is therefore diverted through the use of storm
regulators. Thus the storm water regulators, also some times called as
overflow devices, prevent overloading of sewers, pumping stations,
treatment plants and other disposal arrangements. The excess
wastewater will be mainly composed on storm water and its will
therefore be not foul in nature.

(10) Storm Regulators continuation...
Following are three types of storm regulators:
1. Over flow weirs (or side flow weirs).
This is a very common device and consists of a masonry chamber with an overflow weir built in it at
a place where a sewer approaches a natural watercourse. The object is to keep the discharge to the
storm water down to a predetermined maximum and allow the surplus to overflow to the water
course. The overflow weirs (side weirs) may be single acting (or single side) or double acting (or
double sides).

(10) Storm Regulators continuation...
The above type of overflow requires a considerable length even in ordinary
floods. In order to reduce the length, double acting overflow with weirs on both
sides may be adopted. The whole structure is compact under a concrete cover.
But very often, it is enclosed in a masonry chamber, with one or two manhole
convers for inspection.

(10) Storm Regulators continuation...
A leaping weir or a jumping weir is a special device by way of which excess wastewater (during
storm) is allowed to escape to a watercourse, while the designed flow is permitted to flow to the
intercepting sewer. The arrangement consists of an opening in the invert of the combined sewer,
and through this opening the normal flow is diverted into the intercepting drain while the excess
flow leaps over the storm drain leading it to a nearby stream.

(10) Storm Regulators continuation...
Siphon Spillway
The overflow weirs described earlier require considerable length, resulting in high
cost of construction. Siphon spillways, on the other hand, are very effective since
they have high discharging capacity. The spill is very sensitive, automatic in
operation and diverts more flow in lesser time.


Site Operational Requirements
A great deal of planning and preliminary work is required prior to the commencement of the pipebursting
operation. Programming of the works is essential given that, unlike replacement by open trench methods,
connecting services or laterals will be out of operation while the replacement pipe is being installed. It
should be understood that pipebursting is an accelerated method of pipe replacement and as such this
accelerated activity requires additional planning. In particular it is important for the following items to be
considered:
1. The position of other utility services in relation to the pipeline being replaced and how they may be
affected by the pipebursting operation. Liaison meetings with representatives of all interested parties
should be arranged.
2. Establish the position of any old repairs to the pipeline that may prevent the pipebursting operation
from being successful. If substantial quantities of concrete have been used when making these repairs
then this will need to be removed prior to the pipebursting commencing.
3. Determine the position of all service or lateral connections and establish the location of all excavations
especially if launch and reception pits are required.
4. Determine what traffic and pedestrian management systems are needed to maintain traffic flows and
public safety.
5. Establish a system of handling existing flows within the pipeline while the pipeline replacement is
taking place.