Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain - Axial Loading

MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Seventh Edition
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
David F. Mazurek

Lecture Notes:
Brock E. Barry
U.S. Military Academy
CHAPTER
Copyright 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2
Stress and Strain
Axial Loading
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer Johnston DeWolf Mazurek

Contents
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
Normal Strain
Stress-Strain Test
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
Deformations Under Axial Loading
Problem 2.20
Problem 2.25
Static Indeterminate Problems
Concept Application 2.4
Problems Involving Temperature Change
Problem 2.51
Poissons Ratio

Multiaxial Loading: Generalized
Hookes Law
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Shearing Strain
Relation Among E, v, and G
Problem 2.68
Saint-Venants Principle
Stress Concentration: Hole
Stress Concentration: Fillet

2 - 2
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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
2 - 3
Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in
the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.
Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member
forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate.
Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires
consideration of deformations in the member.
Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under
axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.
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Normal Strain
2 - 4
strain normal
stress
= =
= =
L
A
P
o
c
o
Fig. 2.1 Undeformed
and deformed axially
loaded rod.
L
A
P
A
P
o
c
o
=
= =
2
2
Fig. 2.3 Twice the load is
required to obtain the same
deformation o when the
cross-sectional area is
doubled.
L L
A
P
o o
c
o
= =
=
2
2
Fig. 2.4 The deformation is
doubled when the rod length
is doubled while keeping the
load P and cross-sectional
area A.
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Stress-Strain Test
2 - 5
Photo 2.2 Universal test machine used to test
tensile specimens.
Photo 2.3 Elongated tensile test
specimen having load P and deformed
length L > L
0
.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
2 - 6
Photo 2.4 Ductile material tested
specimens: (a) with cross-section
necking, (b) ruptured.
Fig. 2.6 Stress-strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials.
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Examples of Ductile Materials
Mild steel, aluminum, iron

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
2 - 8
Fig 2.7 Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material.
Photo 2.5 Ruptured brittle materials specimen.
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Examples of Brittle Materials
Cast iron, glass, concrete and rock
For most brittle materials, such as concrete and rock, the ultimate strength in
compression is much larger than in tension.
This has important design considerations.

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Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
2 - 10
Below the yield stress
Elasticity of Modulus
or Modulus Youngs =
=
E
Ec o
Strength is affected by alloying,
heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.
Fig 2.11 Stress-strain diagrams for iron and
different grades of steel.
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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
2 - 11
If the strain disappears when the
stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
When the strain does not return
to zero after the stress is
removed, plastic deformation
of the material has taken place.
The largest stress for which this
occurs is called the elastic limit.
Fig. 2.13 Stress-strain response of ductile
material load beyond yield and unloaded.
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Deformations Under Axial Loading
2 - 12
AE
P
E
E = = =
o
c c o
From Hookes Law:
From the definition of strain:
L
o
c =
Equating and solving for the deformation,
AE
PL
= o
With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
=
i i i
i i
E A
L P
o Fig. 2.17 Undeformed and
deformed axially-loaded rod.
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p02_19-20
Problem 2.20
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p02_25
Problem 2.25
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Static Indeterminate Problems
2 - 15
Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.
0 = + =
R L
o o o
Deformations due to actual loads and redundant
reactions are determined separately and then
added.
Redundant reactions are replaced with
unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.
A structure will be statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.
Fig. 2.23
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2 - 16
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.
Solve for the reaction at R
A
due to applied loads
and the reaction found at R
B
.
Require that the displacements due to the loads
and due to the redundant reaction be compatible,
i.e., require that their sum be zero.
Solve for the displacement at B due to the
redundant reaction at R
B
.
SOLUTION:
Consider the reaction at B as redundant, release
the bar from that support, and solve for the
displacement at B due to the applied loads.
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2 - 17
SOLUTION:
Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads with the redundant constraint released,
E E A
L P
L L L L
A A A A
P P P P
i i i
i i
9
L
4 3 2 1
2 6
4 3
2 6
2 1
3
4
3
3 2 1
10 125 . 1
m 150 . 0
m 10 250 m 10 400
N 10 900 N 10 600 0
=
= = = =
= = = =
= = = =

o
Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant
constraint,
( )

= =
= =
= =
= =

i
B
i i
i i
R
B
E
R
E A
L P
L L
A A
R P P
3
2 1
2 6
2
2 6
1
2 1
10 95 . 1
m 300 . 0
m 10 250 m 10 400
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2 - 18
Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
( )
kN 577 N 10 577
0
10 95 . 1 10 125 . 1
0
3
3 9
= =
=
=
= + =
B
B
R L
R
E
R
E
o
o o o
Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B
kN 323
kN 577 kN 600 kN 300 0
=
+ = =
A
A y
R
R F
kN 577
kN 323
=
=
B
A
R
R
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Fig. 2.24 Multi-section bar of Concept Application 2.4 with initial
4.5-mm gap at point B. Loading brings bar into contact with constraint.
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Problems Involving Temperature Change
2 - 20
A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
( )
expansion thermal of t coefficien =
= A =
o
o o o
AE
PL
L T
P T
Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
0 = + =
P T
o o o
The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
( )
( )
( ) T E
A
P
T AE P
AE
PL
L T
A = =
A =
= + A
o o
o
o 0
Fig. 2.26 (partial)
Fig. 2.27 Superposition method to find force at point B of restrained
rod AB undergoing thermal expansion. (a) Initial rod length; (b)
thermally expanded rod length; (c) force P pushes point B back to
zero deformation.
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p02_51
Problem 2.51
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Problem 2.50
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Poissons Ratio
2 - 23
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
0 = = =
z y
x
x
E
o o
o
c
The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
homogeneous and isotropic (no directional
dependence),
0 = =
z y
c c
Poissons ratio is defined as
x
z
x
y
c
c
c
c
v = = =
strain axial
strain lateral
Fig. 2.29 A bar in uniaxial tension and a
representative stress element.
Fig. 2.30 Materials undergo transverse
contraction when elongated under axial load.

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Poissons Ratio
Steel

u = 0.3
Rubber

u = 0.49
Polyurethane Foam

v = 0.7

1s v s 0.5
Due to thermodynamical reasons:
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Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hookes Law
2 - 25
For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,
the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) Each effect is linearly related to the load that
produces it.
2) The deformation resulting form any given
load is small and does not affect the conditions
of application of the other loads.

c
x
=
o
x
E

vo
y
E

vo
z
E
c
y
=
o
y
E

vo
x
E

vo
z
E
c
z
=
o
z
E

vo
x
E

vo
y
E
With these restrictions:
Fig. 2.33 Deformation of unit cube under
multiaxial loading: (a) unloaded; (b) deformed.
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Generalized Hookes Law
Generalized Hookes Law is valid for homogeneous, isotropic materials:

c
x
=
o
x
E

u
E
(o
y
+o
z
)
c
y
=
o
y
E

u
E
(o
x
+o
z
)
c
z
=
o
z
E

u
E
(o
x
+o
y
)
Applies to below proportional limit,
and for small deformations
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Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
| |
( )
e) unit volum per in volume (change dilatation
2 1
1 1 1
=
+ +
=
+ + =
+ + + = =
z y x
z y x
z y x
E
e
o o o
v
c c c
c c c v
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
( )
( )
n compressio of modulus or modulus bulk
2 1 3
2 1 3
=
=
=
=
v
v
E
k
k
p
p
E
e
2 - 27
Fig. 2.33 Deformation of unit
cube under multiaxial loading:
(a) unloaded; (b) deformed.
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Shearing Strain
2 - 28
A cubic element subjected to only shearing stress will
deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding
shearing strain is quantified in terms of the change in
angle between the sides,

t
xy
= f
xy
( )
A plot of shearing stress vs. shearing strain is similar
to the previous plots of normal stress vs. normal
strain except that the strength values are
approximately half. For values of shearing strain
that do not exceed the proportional limit,
zx zx yz yz xy xy
G G G t t t = = =
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.
Fig. 2.36 Unit cubic element
subjected to shearing stress.
Fig. 2.37 Deformation of unit cubic
element due to shearing stress.
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2 - 29
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine (a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and (b)
the force P exerted on the plate.
SOLUTION:
Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
Use the definition of shearing stress to
find the force P.
Apply Hookes law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
Fig. 2.41(a) Rectangular block loaded in shear.
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2 - 30
Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.
rad 020 . 0
in. 2
in. 04 . 0
tan = = ~
xy xy xy

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress and
strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.
( )( ) psi 1800 rad 020 . 0 psi 10 90
3
= = =
xy xy
G t
Use the definition of shearing stress to find
the force P.
( )( )( ) lb 10 36 in. 5 . 2 in. 8 psi 1800
3
= = = A P
xy
t
kips 0 . 36 = P
Fig. 2.41(b) Deformed block showing
the shear strain.
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Relation Between E, v, and G
2 - 31
An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the x direction and contract in
both of the transverse y and z directions.
( ) v + = 1
2G
E
Components of normal and shearing strain
are related,
or
If the cubic element is oriented as in
Figure 2.42(b), it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a
shearing strain.
An initially cubic element oriented as in
Figure 2.42(a) will deform into a
rectangular parallelepiped. The axial load
produces a normal strain.
Fig. 2.42 Representations of strain in an axially
loaded bar: (a) cubicstrain element faces
aligned with coordinate axes; (b) cubicstrain
element faces rotated 45 about z-axis.
( ) v +
=
1 2
E
G
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Isotropic Solid
For a homogeneous, isotropic solid, there are only two independent material
constants that are required to be obtained experimentally.

G =
E
2(1+u)
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Generalized Hookes Law-Summary

c
x
=
1
E
o
x
u o
y
+o
z
( ) ( )
c
y
=
1
E
o
y
u o
x
+o
z
( )
( )
c
z
=
1
E
o
z
u o
x
+o
y
( ) ( )

xy
=
t
xy
G

yz
=
t
yz
G

zx
=
t
zx
G

Where

G =
E
2(1+u)
For an isotropic solid in the elastic range:
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p02_68
Problem 2.68
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Saint-Venants Principle
2 - 35
Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.
Saint-Venants Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
Stress and strain distributions
become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.
Concentrated loads result in large
stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
Fig. 2.47 Axial load
applied by rigid plates to
rubber model.
Fig. 2.49 Stress distributions in a
plate under concentrated axial loads.
Fig. 2.48 Concentrated
axial load applied to
rubber model.
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Stress Concentration: Hole
2 - 36
Discontinuities of cross section may result in
high localized or concentrated stresses.
ave
max
o
o
= K
Stress concentration factor
Fig. 2.50 Stress distribution near
circular hole in flat bar under axial
loading.
Fig. 2.52(a) Stress concentration
factors for flat bars under axial loading.
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2 - 37
Stress Concentration: Fillet
Fig. 2.51 Stress distribution near
fillets in flat bar under axial loading.
Fig. 2.52(b) Stress concentration
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2 - 38
Determine the largest axial load P
that can be safely supported by a
flat steel bar consisting of two
portions, both 10 mm thick, and
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide,
connected by fillets of radius r = 8
mm. Assume an allowable normal
stress of 165 MPa.
SOLUTION:
Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Figure 2.52.
Apply the definition of normal stress to
find the allowable load.
Find the allowable average normal
stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
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2 - 39
Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Figure 2.52.
82 . 1
20 . 0
mm 40
mm 8
50 . 1
mm 40
mm 60
=
= = = =
K
d
r
d
D
Find the allowable average normal
stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
MPa 7 . 90
82 . 1
MPa 165
max
ave
= = =
K
o
o
Apply the definition of normal stress
to find the allowable load.
( )( )( )
N 10 3 . 36
MPa 7 . 90 mm 10 mm 40
3
=
= =
ave
A P o
kN 3 . 36 = P
Fig. 2.52(b) Stress concentration

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