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Patterns of Democracy - Lijphart

Matthew Mynn, Romina Jermann
13.10.09
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Agenda
Agenda
Author
Text overview
The Consensus Model
The Majoritarian Model
Critical Analysis
Conclusion
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Author
Arend dAngremond Lijphart

Born: 1936 in the Netherlands
Nationality: Dutch, American
Fields: Political Science
(specializing in comparative politics,
elections and voting systems, democratic institutions etc.)
Institutions: University of California, San Diego
Known for: Patterns of Democracy (1999)
(Lijphart classifies 36 democracies)


Text overview (1)
Patterns of Democracy (Chapters 1-3)





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Majoritarian Consensus
Majoritarian = Government by a bare majority & in accordance
with the majoritys wishes
Consensus

= Government by a maximized majority & responsive
to a minority
Text overview (2)
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Indicators Majoritarian /
Westminster
Consensus
1. Executive Single-party majority
cabinets
Power-sharing in multi-
party coalitions
2. Executive-
Legislative
Executive dominance Balance of power
3. Party system Two-party system Multiparty system
4. Electoral system Plurality system of
elections
Proportional
representation
5. Interest group Pluralist Corporatist
6. Type of government Unitary and centralized Federal and decentralized
7. Legislature Unicameralism Balanced bicameralism
8. Constitution Flexible Rigid
9. Judicial review Parliamentary sovereignty Constitutional court
10. Central Bank Dependent on executive Independent on executive
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The Consensus Model
Overview:

Switzerland (as the best example / one exception)
Belgium (Federal state since 1993)
European Union (although not a sovereign state)
Ten Point Criteria
Exceptions
The Consensus Model - Switzerland
1. Executive power-sharing in broad coalition cabinets:
Coalition of government
Federal Council (magic formula)
Additionally: linguistic groups are represented

2. Executive-legislative balance of power
Separation of powers
Federal Council is powerful but not supreme

3. Multi-party system
Four-party system in Switzerland
Why multi-party system? Plural society and PR

The Consensus Model - Switzerland
4. Proportional representation:
Votes received translated into Parliamentary seats
Translation of societal cleavages into party-system cleavages

5. Interest group corporatism
Strong liberal corporatism (business associations are the strong force)
Prominence of peak associations

6. Federal and decentralized government
Power divided between government and cantons
One of the worlds most decentralized states



The Consensus Model - Switzerland
7. Strong bicameralism
Special representation to minorities

8. Constitutional rigidity:
Written constitution
Can only be changed by special majorities

9. Judicial review
Exception!
Federal Tribunal doesnt have the right of judicial review

10. Central bank independence
Regarded as one of the strongest central banks


The Consensus Model Belgium & EU
Belgium:
Linguistic groups are represented in government = Formal requirement
Coalition between four and six parties
BUT: New federal legislature exemplifies relatively weak bicameralism
BUT: Parliamentary form of government (like the Westminster model)

European Union:
Principal institutions dont fit the usual classification
European Commission (executive) is a broad coalition
8 officially recognized parties
BUT: Not yet developed a full-fledged corporatism
BUT: EU is highly unified and centralized




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The Majoritarian Model
Overview:

British is the original Model (often cited example / admired)
UK
New Zealand
Barbados
Ten Point Criteria
Exceptions
The Majoritarian Model - UK
1. Concentration of executive power in one-party and bare-majority
cabinets:
Cabinet most powerful organ of British government
Embodiment of Majority rule
Large minority in the opposition
Some exceptions

2. Cabinet Dominance:
Parliamentary System cabinet depends on parliament (H.o.C)
Executive Dominance Elective Dictatorship

The Majoritarian Model - UK
3. Two-Party System:
2 dominant Parties: Conservatives & Labour
One-Dimensional Socioeconomic issues (New Labour)
Other Differences: Religion, Ethnic, Foreign Policy (EU)
Never less than 87.5% of vote / 98% of seats in House of Commons
Other Parties: Liberals / Social Democrats (Liberal Democrats)

4. Majoritarian and disproportional system of elections:
Plurality Method First past the post
Manufactured Majorities artificially created by the electoral system
Biggest losers of this system: Liberal Democracts
Discussion of reform to the system usually end after election


The Majoritarian Model - UK
5. Interest Group Pluralism:
Free-for-all pluralism: Multiplicity of interest groups vs government
Uncoordinated & Competitive
1980s Confrontations (Thatcher)

6. Unitary and centralized government:
Centralized State - Limited power of local governments
Exceptions: Devolution (N.I. / Scotland / Wales)

7. Concentration of legislative power in a unicameral legislature:
Power should be concentrated in a single house or chamber
UK has two chambers: House of Commons / House of Lords
However, House of Lords has limited power delay legislation
The Majoritarian Model - UK
8. Constitutional flexibility:
No written Constitution
Can be changed by Parliament by regular majorities

9. Absence of judicial review:
Courts cannot test the constitutionality of regular legislation
Parliament is the ultimate sovereign authority
Exception: EU (some loss of sovereignty), Human Rights

10. A central bank controlled by the executive:
Bank of England cannot act independently
Under the control of the cabinet
Exception: 1997 Power to set interest rates


The Majoritarian Model N.Z. & Barbados
New Zealand: (Population size)
Pure two-party system
Maori minority (Proportional Representation 1992)
More pluralist Interest Group System than Britain
Only one Chamber pure unicameralism
Some basic entrenched laws
Greater Central Bank independence (1989) Inflation 2%

Barbados: (Population size)
No manufactured majorities
Bicameralism / Written constitution / Judicial review / Bank autonomy
Westminster adapted


Critical Analysis
Distinction between two types of democracy is not a new
invention (Robert G. Dixon 1968) and others
Some Exceptions
Limited amount of countries analysed (in chapters 1-3)
Recent reforms could questions the concept:
Written constitutions, central bank autonomy

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Conclusion
Very accessible text
Highlights the alternative model (consensus)
and shows that pure majoritarian democracies are rare.
Clear criteria to measure the systems (10 Points)
Focus on Democratic Institutions and Rules (10 points)
Cluster: Executive-Parties (1-5) / Federal-unitary dimension (6-10)
Majoritarian: Exclusive, competitive & adversarial
Consensus: Inclusiveness, bargaining & compromise