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where
l is the length of the conductor, measured in
meters
A is the cross-sectional area, measured in
square meters
ρ (Greek: rho) is the electrical resistivity
(also called specific electrical resistance) of
the material, measured in ohm · meter.
Resistivity is a measure of the material's
Causes of resistance:
In metals
A metal consists of a lattice of atoms,
each with a shell of electrons. This can
also be known as a positive ionic
lattice. The outer electrons are free to
dissociate from their parent atoms and
travel through the lattice, creating a
'sea' of electrons, making the metal a
conductor. When an electrical potential
difference (a voltage) is applied across
the metal, the electrons drift from one
end of the conductor to the other
under the influence of the electric field
In a metal the thermal motion
of ions is the primary source of
scattering of electrons (due to
destructive interference of free
electron wave on non-
correlating potentials of ions) -
thus the prime cause of metal
resistance. Imperfections of
lattice also contribute into
resistance, although their
contribution in pure metals is
The larger the cross-sectional
area of the conductor, the
more electrons are available to
carry the current, so the lower
the resistance. The longer the
conductor, the more scattering
events occur in each electron's
path through the material, so
the higher the resistance.
variation of resistance due to
temperature t,
Near room temperature, the
electric resistance of a typical
metal conductor increases
linearly with the temperature:
R=R. (1+at)
where a is the thermal
resistance coefficient. ,
When a current, I, flows
through an object with
resistance, R, electrical energy
is converted to heat at a rate (
power) equal to
where
P is the power measured in
watts
I is the current measured in
amperes
R is the resistance measured in
This effect is useful in some
applications such as
incandescent lighting and
electric heating, but is
undesirable in power
transmission. Common ways to
combat resistive loss include
using thicker wire and higher
voltages. Superconducting wire
is used in special applications.
Devlopment of resistor
• .teacher
Ohm was sent to Switzerland where, in September 1806, took up a post as a mathematics
in a school in Gottstadt bei Nydau.
Ohm continued working for several other Universities throughout Bavaria and published several
papers. In two important papers in 1826, Ohm gave a mathematical description of conduction in
circuits modeled of Fourier's study of heat conduction. These papers continue Ohm's deduction of
results from experimental evidence and, particularly in the second paper, he was able to propose
laws which went a long way to explaining results of others working on galvanic electricity. This
second paper certainly was a first step in a comprehensive theory which Ohm was able to give in
his famous book published in the following year called "Die Galvanische Kette, mathematisch
bearbeitet" (1827) which means "The Galvanic Chain, Mathematically worked" and contained what
is now know as the 'Ohm Laws' and they are for voltage: E=IxR, current: I=E/R, resistance: R=E/I,
power: P=E 2/R, also P=I2*R or P=E*I
In 1849 Ohm took up a post in Munich as curator of the Bavarian Academy's physical cabinet and
began to lecture at the University of Munich. Only in 1852, two years before his death, did ohm
achieve his lifelong ambition of being appointed to the chair of physics at the University of Munich.
you can 'create' your own resistors. not difficult. Here is how to do it:
• Draw a line on a piece of paper with a soft pencil, HB or 2HB will do
fine. Make the line thick and about 2 inches (5cm) long. With your
multimeter, measure the ohm's value of this line by putting a probe
on each side of the line, make sure the probes are touching the
carbon from the pencil. The value would probably be around the 800K
to 1.5M depending on your thickness of the line and what type of
pencil lead is used. If you double the line the resistance will drop
considerably, if you erase some of it (length-wise obviously!) the
resistance will increase. You can also use carbon with silicon glue and
when it dries measure the resistance, or gypsum with carbon mixed,
etc
Sample of resistor
When two or more resistor is in
series connection
When two or more resistance
be in // connection
•Resistors are electronic
components used extensively on
the circuit boards of electronic
equipment. They are color coded
with stripes to reveal their
resistance value (in ohms) as
well as their manufacturing
tolerance
This is the sample for
explaning the color coding
Color of code
• OnThird
the basis of band it is of mainly
–band resistor color
four type
coding
•
Example
Resistance
Yellow, is:-
Green, Orange, Silver
Yellow and green represent 4 and 5,
respectively. Those consist of the first and
second digits, so it will be 45. The third band is
orange. As a multiplier, it is × 1000, so you will
calculate 45 × 1000; therefore, the resistance
is 45,000 Ω. The forth band, silver, represents
the tolerance, so the final expression of the
resistance is 45,000 ± 10% Ω.
6) Decode the resistor. Brown,
Black, Brown, Gold
Value: _________
Tolerance: _____