Lecture 02pysical processes

responsible for climateglobal

energy balance
3 May 2011
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Home work lecture 1
Volcanic eruptions typically inject sulfur dioxide
gas (SO
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) into the atmosphere. In what way does
this perturb the earth's climate system (through
its energy budget)? Why is it necessary to
average together the climate response to several
volcanic eruptions to increase our confidence
that such eruptions actually impact the climate
system as we think they do? How long to the
effects of individual volcanic eruptions typically
affect the climate system?


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Home work lecture 1
Clouds both reflect solar radiation back to space, which
tends to cool the planet, and absorb outgoing longwave IR
radiation emitted by the surface and reemit its own, partly
back to the surface, enhancing the greenhouse effect and
warming the surface. High clouds (such as cirrus clouds,
which tend to be thin and made of ice crystals) enhance the
greenhouse effect more than they increase the planetary
albedo, whereas low clouds (such as stratus clouds, which
are relatively dense with water droplets made of liquid
water) tend to increase planetary albedo more than they
enhance the greenhouse effect. This presents problems
trying to figure out whether cloud feedback in the climate
system is net positive or negative. Why else is cloud
feedback hard to determine?
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Todays Topics
1. Climate and Earths Energy Budget
2. Surface Energy Budget
3. The Atmospheres Energy Budget
4. The Natural Greenhouse Effect
5. Energy Imbalances
6. Oceanic Circulation
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1. Climate and Earths Energy Budget
The Earth's climate system constantly tries to
maintain a balance between the energy that
reaches the Earth from the Sun and the
energy that is emitted to space. Scientists
refer to this process as Earth's "radiation
budget".

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Climate and Earths Energy Budget
Earths heat engine does more than simply
move heat from one part of the surface to
another; it also moves heat from the Earths
surface and lower atmosphere back to space.
This flow of incoming and outgoing energy is
Earths energy budget
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http://www.bom.gov.au/info/climate/change/gallery/images/7.jpg
Climate and Earths Energy Budget
The Earths climate is a solar powered system.
Process that takes place during Earths energy
budget
Absorption
Reflection
Emission

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Absorption
Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth
systemland surfaces, oceans, and
atmosphereabsorbs an average of about 240
watts or 71% of solar power per square meter
(one watt is one joule of energy every second).
The absorbed sunlight drives photosynthesis,
fuels evaporation, melts snow and ice, and
warms the Earth system.
A cloud can absorb radiation emitted by the
Earth's surface and radiates in all directions.
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Absorption
When matter absorbs energy, the atoms and
molecules that make up the material become
excited; they move around more quickly. The
increased movement raises the materials
temperature.
Temperature doesnt infinitely rise, however,
because atoms and molecules on Earth are
not just absorbing sunlight, they are also
radiating thermal infrared energy (heat).
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Reflection
Part of the solar energy that comes to Earth is
reflected back out to space in the same, short
wavelengths in which it came to Earth.
The percentage of solar energy that is reflected
back to space is called the albedo. Different
surfaces have different albedos.

Over the whole surface of the Earth, about 30
percent of incoming solar energy is reflected back
to space 20(molecules)+68(cloud)+14(surface).
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Reflection
Ocean surfaces (26% albedo) and rain forests (15%
albedo) reflect only a small portion of the Sun's
energy.
Deserts however, have high albedos (40%); they
reflect a large portion of the Sun's energy.
A cloud usually has a higher albedo than the
surface beneath it, the cloud reflects more
shortwave radiation back to space than the
surface would in the absence of the cloud, thus
leaving less solar energy available to heat the
surface and atmosphere
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Emission
Another part of the energy going back to space
from the Earth is the long wave radiation emitted
by the Earth.

The solar radiation absorbed by the Earth
increases the planet's temperature. Heat energy is
emitted into space, creating a balance.


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Emission
The longwave energy emitted from the surface of
the Earth and absorbed by the atmosphere
results in an increase in the ambient temperature
(i.e., the greenhouse effect). This absorbed
energy is then emitted both to space and back
towards the Earth's surface.
The greenhouse effect is due mainly to water
vapor in the atmosphere. This effect is enhanced
by carbon dioxide, methane and other infrared-
absorbing gases.

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Energy (heat) trapped at surface
(atmosphere, ocean surface and land)
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2. Surface Energy Budget
The amount of heat a surface radiates is proportional
to the fourth power of its temperature. If temperature
doubles, radiated energy increases by a factor of 16 (2
to the 4th power). If the temperature of the Earth rises,
the planet rapidly emits an increasing amount of heat
to space.
This large increase in heat loss in response to a
relatively smaller increase in temperaturereferred to
as radiative coolingis the primary mechanism that
prevents runaway heating on Earth.
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2. Surface Energy Budget
The atmosphere and the surface of the Earth
together absorb 71 percent of incoming solar
radiation, so together, they must radiate that
much energy back to space for the planets
average temperature to remain stable.
However, the relative contribution of the
atmosphere and the surface to each process
(absorbing sunlight versus radiating heat) is
asymmetric.


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2. Surface Energy Budget
The atmosphere radiates heat equivalent to
59 percent of incoming sunlight; the surface
radiates only 12 percent. In other words, most
solar heating happens at the surface, while
most radiative cooling happens in the
atmosphere. How does this reshuffling of
energy between the surface and atmosphere
happen?

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2. Surface Energy Budget
For the energy budget at Earths surface to
balance, processes on the ground must get rid
of the 48 percent of incoming solar energy
that the ocean and land surfaces absorb.
Energy leaves the surface through three
processes: evaporation, convection, and
emission of thermal infrared energy.

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2. Surface Energy Budget
About 25 percent of incoming solar energy leaves
the surface through evaporation. Liquid water
molecules absorb incoming solar energy, and
they change phase from liquid to gas. The heat
energy that it took to evaporate the water is
latent in the random motions of the water vapor
molecules as they spread through the
atmosphere. When the water vapor molecules
condense back into rain, the latent heat is
released to the surrounding atmosphere.
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2. Surface Energy Budget
An additional 5 percent of incoming solar
energy leaves the surface through convection.
Air in direct contact with the sun-warmed
ground becomes warm and buoyant. In
general, the atmosphere is warmer near the
surface and colder at higher altitudes, and
under these conditions, warm air rises,
shuttling heat away from the surface.
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2. Surface Energy Budget
Finally, a net of about 17 percent of incoming
solar energy leaves the surface as thermal
infrared energy (heat) radiated by atoms and
molecules on the surface.
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3. The Atmospheres Energy Budget
Satellite measurements indicate that the
atmosphere radiates thermal infrared energy
equivalent to 59 percent of the incoming solar
energy. If the atmosphere is radiating this
much, it must be absorbing that much. Where
does that energy come from?
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3. The Atmospheres Energy Budget
Clouds, aerosols, water vapor, and ozone directly
absorb 23 percent of incoming solar energy.
Evaporation and convection transfer 25 and 5 percent
of incoming solar energy from the surface to the
atmosphere
These three processes transfer the equivalent of 53
percent of the incoming solar energy to the
atmosphere. If total inflow of energy must match the
outgoing thermal infrared observed at the top of the
atmosphere, where does the remaining fraction (about
5-6 percent) come from?

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summary
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Absorb
atmosphere
surface
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Radiate
atmosphere
surface
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4. The Natural Greenhouse Effect
Just as the major atmospheric gases (oxygen
and nitrogen) are transparent to incoming
sunlight, they are also transparent to outgoing
thermal infrared. However, water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace
gases are opaque to many wavelengths of
thermal infrared energy.
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4. The Natural Greenhouse Effect
Remember that the surface radiates the net
equivalent of 17 percent of incoming solar
energy as thermal infrared. However, the
amount that directly escapes to space is only
about 12 percent of incoming solar energy.
The remaining fractiona net 5-6 percent of
incoming solar energyis transferred to the
atmosphere when greenhouse gas molecules
absorb thermal infrared energy radiated by
the surface.

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4. The Natural Greenhouse Effect
Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate
heat in all directions, some of it spreads
downward and ultimately comes back into
contact with the Earths surface, where it is
absorbed. The temperature of the surface
becomes warmer than it would be if it were
heated only by direct solar heating. This
supplemental heating of the Earths surface by
the atmosphere is the natural greenhouse
effect.
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4. The Natural Greenhouse Effect
The natural greenhouse effect raises the Earths
surface temperature to about 15 degrees Celsius
on averagemore than 30 degrees warmer than
it would be if it didnt have an atmosphere. The
amount of heat radiated from the atmosphere to
the surface (sometimes called back radiation) is
equivalent to 100 percent of the incoming solar
energy. The Earths surface responds to the
extra (on top of direct solar heating) energy by
raising its temperature.
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5. Energy imbalances
The total solar irradiance is the maximum
possible power that the Sun can deliver to a
planet at Earths average distance from the
Sun; basic geometry limits the actual solar
energy intercepted by Earth. Only half the
Earth is ever lit by the Sun at one time, which
halves the total solar irradiance.
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5. Energy Imbalances
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Suns energy striking the planet
5. Energy Imbalances.
In addition, the total solar irradiance is the
maximum power the Sun can deliver to a surface
that is perpendicular to the path of incoming
light. Because the Earth is a sphere, only areas
near the equator at midday come close to being
perpendicular to the path of incoming light.
Everywhere else, the light comes in at an angle.
The progressive decrease in the angle of solar
illumination with increasing latitude reduces the
average solar irradiance by an additional one-half.

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If the Earth was a homogeneous body that didnt spin, its temperature distribution
would be strictly latitudinal.
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With land, atmosphere and oceans added,
the absorption of solar radiation changes.
(Average for 1987)
Changes caused by:
Sun-earth geometry, land-water surface characteristics, and cloud cover
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Balance between average net shortwave (incoming) and longwave (outgoing) radiation
from 90 N to 90 S.
If there were no energy transfer from equator to poles, the poles would be 25 C
cooler, and the equator 14 C warmer!
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5. Energy Imbalances..
The total energy received each day at the top of
the atmosphere depends on latitude. The highest
daily amounts of incoming energy (pale pink)
occur at high latitudes in summer, when days are
long, rather than at the equator. In winter, some
polar latitudes receive no light at all (black). The
Southern Hemisphere receives more energy
during December (southern summer) than the
Northern Hemisphere does in June (northern
summer) because Earths orbit is not a perfect
circle and Earth is slightly closer to the Sun during
that part of its orbit.

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5. Energy Imbalances
The net heating imbalance between the equator
and poles drives an atmospheric and oceanic
circulation that climate scientists describe as a
heat engine. (In our everyday experience, we
associate the word engine with automobiles, but
to a scientist, an engine is any device or system
that converts energy into motion.) The climate is
an engine that uses heat energy to keep the
atmosphere and ocean moving. Evaporation,
convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean currents
are all part of the Earths heat engine.

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Wind = air in motion
Pressure gradient air moves from high to low pressure
What causes the circulation from equator to poles?
6. Oceanic Circulation
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As a result of circulation:
Average Annual Global Temperature 1982-1994
Temperature Scale in Kelvin

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Circulation around H & L pressure
Surface winds on a weather map do not
blow exactly parallel to the isobars.
Instead, surface winds tend to cross the
isobars at an angle. Close to the Earth's
surface, friction reduces the wind speed,
reducing the Coriolis force. As a result,
the reduced Coriolis force no longer
balances the pressure gradient force, and
the wind blows across the isobars toward
or away from the pressure center. The
pressure gradient force is now balanced
by the sum of the frictional force and the
Coriolis force. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the Coriolis force acts to the
left rather than the right. This causes the
winds of the Southern Hemisphere to
blow clockwise and inward around
surface lows, and counterclockwise and
outward around surface highs
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Actual air flow altered due to land masses
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The movement of air masses controls the winds on the surface and
aloft, which accounts for formation and movement of precipitation.
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From the circulation, get weather and the climate zones
Home work lecture 2

1. Suppose that all gases that absorb terrestrial radiation
(notably water vapor and carbon dioxide, but other,
less important ones, too) were removed from the
atmosphere. Note that removing water vapor would
also mean that no clouds could be present, either,
which would reduce the atmosphere's (and hence the
earth's) albedo. There would be less absorption of
solar radiation in the atmosphere as well. How would
these changes affect the heat budget if it were to be
balanced? (You should be able to estimate quantitative
changes in the budget.) What implications would this
have for the surface temperature ?
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Home work lecture 2
2. Suppose that more carbon dioxide (or water vapor, say) were
added to today's atmosphere.
-What instantaneous effect would this have on the various
fluxes of energy to and from the atmosphere and surface?
(Remember that finite temperature changes require
imbalances in the heat budget acting over at least a short
period of time.) Which budget(s), if any, would be out of
balance as a result of the initial effects?
- Assuming that the composition of the atmosphere doesn't
change any further, how would the temperature of the
atmosphere and surface change over time in response to the
imbalance(s) that you've identified? How would the fluxes in
the budget change in response to the changes in
temperature? Once a new balance (also called equilibrium) is
achieved (if in fact it is achieved!), how will the temperature
and fluxes differ from their pre-disturbance state?
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