a

b
(a) (b)
a
b
V
Th
+
-
5.3 THEVENINS THEOREM

In many practical applications, we may not be interested in getting the complete
analysis of the circuit, namely finding the current through all the elements and voltages
across all the elements. We may be interested to know the details of a portion of the
circuit; as a special case it may be a single element such as load impedance. In
such a situation it is very convenient to use Thevenins theorem to get the solution.

Fig. 5.16 illustrates the Thevenins equivalent of sub-circuit A.




Fig. 5.16 Thevenins equivalent.

Circuit A

Circuit B

Circuit B
Z
Th
~
a
b
(a) (b)
a
b
V
Th
+
-






In Fig. 5.16 (a) a circuit partitioned into two parts, namely circuit A and circuit B, is
shown. They are connected by a single pair of terminals. In Fig. 5.16 (b) circuit A is
replaced by Thevenins equivalent circuit, which consists of a voltage source V
Th
in
series with an impedance Z
Th
.
To obtain the Thevenins equivalent circuit, we need to find Thevenins voltage V
th
and
Thevenins impedance Z
Th
. Unique procedure is available to find the Thevenins voltage
V
Th.
When we need the Thevenins voltage of circuit A, measure or calculate the OPEN
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE of circuit A. This will be the Thevenins voltage.
Fig. 5.16 Thevenins equivalent.

Circuit A

Circuit B

Circuit B
Z
Th
~
3
6
9 V
R
L
I
L
Circuit A Circuit B
I
L
3
R
L
6
9 V
Example 5.6
Find the Thevenins voltage with respect to the load resistor R
L
in circuit shown in Fig.
5.18.



Solution
The given circuit can be divided into two circuits as shown in Fig. 5.19.





Fig. 5.18 Circuit for Example 5.6.
3
6
9 V
R
L
I
L
Circuit A
Circuit B
6
-
+
V
Th
3
9 V
a
b






Thevenins voltage of circuit A can be obtained from the circuit shown in Fig. 5.20.




Using voltage division rule V
Th
= V
6
= V 6 9 x
9
6
=
Fig. 5.20 Circuit - Example 5.6.
a
b
Z
Th
(a) (b)
a
b
+
-
V
Th
Thevenins impedance can be calculated in three different ways depending on the
nature of voltage and current sources in the circuit of our interest.
Case 1
The circuit for which Thevenins impedance is to be calculated consists of impedances
and one or more independent sources. That is, the circuit does not contain any
dependent source. To determine Thevenins impedance, circuit shown in Fig. 5.21 (b)
is to be used.




The circuit AA in Fig. 5.21 (b) is obtained from circuit A by replacing all the independent
voltage sources by short circuits and replacing all independent current sources by open
circuits. Thus in circuit AA, all the independent sources are set to zero. Then,
Thevenins impedance is the equivalent circuit impedance of circuit AA which can be
obtained using reduction techniques.

Circuit AA
Fig. 5.21 Determining Thevenins equivalents.

Circuit A
V
Th
+
-
b
I
sc
(a) (b)
V
Th
b
+
-
a a
Case 2
Some circuits contain one or more dependent sources as well as independent
sources. The presence of dependent source prevents us from directly obtaining
Thevenins impedance from simple circuit reduction. In such case, the following
procedure shall be followed.
If terminals a and b of the Thevenins equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5.22 (a) are short
circuited as shown in Fig. 5.22 (b), and the short circuit current is I
sc
, then mesh current
equation can be written as




V
Th
- Z
Th
I
sc
= 0 (5.1) Thus Z
Th
=
sc
Th
V
I
(5.2)
Therefore, Thevenins impedance is equal to Thevenins voltage divided by short circuit
current.
This procedure can also be used for circuit with one or more independent sources and
no dependent sources. (Case - 1)
Fig. 5.22 Thevenins equivalent with short circuit current.
Z
Th
~
Z
Th
~
a


Circuit
having no
independent
source

b
+
-
V
Th
= 0
+
a
b
-
1 V
I
s
a
b
-
1 A
+
V
s
(a) (b) (c)
Case 3
Another arrangement that may arise is a circuit having no independent source and one
or more dependent sources. Since there will not be any current flow, it will result in V
Th

and I
sc
of zero value. In such case, Thevenins impedance can be calculated with any
one of the arrangements shown in Fig. 5.23 (b) or (c).





Referring to Fig. 5.23 (b), applying a voltage of 1 V, source current I
s
is calculated.
Since 1 = Z
Th
I
s
, Thevenins impedance
s
Th
1
Z
I
=
Referring to Fig. 5.23 (c), injecting a current of 1 A, source voltage V
s
is calculated.
Since V
s
= Z
Th
x 1 Thevenins impedance Z
Th
= V
s
.
This procedure can be used to other types of circuits also after setting the independent
sources to zero.


Circuit
having no
independent
source

~


Circuit
having no
independent
source


Fig. 5.23 Thevenins impedance for circuit having no independent source.
The methods of finding the Thevenins impedance depend on the nature of the circuit
for which the Thevenins equivalent is sought for. These methods are summarized
below:
Circuit with independent sources only - ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING
1. Make independent sources zeros and use reduction techniques to find Z
Th
.
2. Short circuit terminals a and b and find the short circuit current I
sc
flowing from
a to b. Then Z
Th
= V
Th
/ I
sc

3. Set all independent sources to zero. Apply 1 V across the open circuited terminals
a-b and determine the source current I
s
entering the circuit through a. Then Z
Th
= 1 / I
s
.
Alternatively introduce a current source of 1 A from b to a and determine the voltage
V
ab
. Then, Thevenins impedance Z
Th
= V
ab
.
Circuit with independent and dependent sources - ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING
1. Short circuit terminals a and b and find the short circuit current I
sc
flowing from
a to b. Then Z
Th
= V
Th
/ I
sc

2. Set all independent sources to zero. Apply 1 V across the open circuited terminals
a-b and determine the source current I
s
entering the circuit through a. Then Z
Th
= 1 / I
s
.
Alternatively introduce a current source of 1 A from b to a and determine the voltage
V
ab
. Then, Thevenins impedance Z
Th
= V
ab
.
Circuit with only dependent sources (Note that Thevenins voltage is zero.)
Apply 1 V across the open circuited terminals a-b and determine the source current I
s

entering the circuit through a. Then Z
Th
= 1 / I
s
. Alternatively introduce a current source
of 1 A from b to a and determine the voltage V
ab
. Then, Thevenins impedance
Z
Th
= V
ab
.
When separating a circuit containing dependent sources into two sub-circuits to make a
Thevenins equivalent, care must be taken to ensure that the dependent source and its
control voltage or current must be in the same sub-circuit.
30
10 V 2 A
4
b
a
20
+
-
Example 5.7
Obtain the Thevenins equivalent for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.24.





Solution:
To find Thevenins voltage:
Note that there is no current flow in resistor of 4 . Therefore, voltage V
Th
is same as
the voltage across 30 resistor. Then, the node voltage equation is
0 2
30
V
20
10 V
Th Th
= + +

On solving this, we get V

Th
= - 18 V

Fig. 5.24 Circuit for Example 5.7.

16
+
-
18 V
a
b
R
Th
30
20 4
b
a
To find Thevenins impedance: Since the circuit has only independent sources, it falls
under case 1
Reducing the sources to zero, the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 5.25.




Thus R
Th
= 4 + 2030 = 16 Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.26.




R
Th
can be obtained by two other methods also
Fig. 5.26 Thevenins equivalent circuit - Example 5.7.

Fig. 5.25 Circuit - Example 5.7.
3
40 V
+
-
3
5 + -
2 I
X
I
X
a
b
Example 5.8
Determine the Thevenins equivalent circuit for the circuit shown.





Solution: To determine V
Th
:
Noting that there is no current flow in 5 resistor, mesh current equation is
- 40 + 3 I
X
- 2 I
X
+ 3 I
X
= 0
Thus I
X
= 10 A and hence V
Th
= 3 I
X
= 30 V

3
40 V
+
-
3
5 + -
2 I
X
I
X
a
b
I
2 I
1
I
sc
R
Th
can be obtained
by another method
also.
As the circuit contains both independent and dependent sources, it falls under case 2.
To calculate the short circuit current circuit shown in Fig. 5.28 is used.




Mesh current equations are:
- 40 + 3 I
1
- 2 (I
1
- I
2
) + 3 (I
1
- I
2
) = 0 i.e. 4 I
1
- I
2
= 40
5 I
2
+ 3 (I
2
- I
1
) = 0 i.e. - 3 I
1
+ 8 I
2
= 0
On solving, I
2
= I
sc
= 4.1379 A Thevenins resistance R
Th
= 7.25
4.1379
30
=
Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown below.




30 V
b
a

Fig. 5.28 Circuit for Example 5.8.
7.25
-
+

5
a
b
10
I
0
+
-
2 I
0
Example 5.9 Determine the Thevenins equivalent circuit for the circuit shown.





Solution:
Since there is no independent source, current I
0
and hence V
Th
= 0.
Since the circuit has only dependent source, it falls under case 3.
Fig. below gives the circuit for finding R
Th

Fig. 5.30 Circuit for Example 5.9.
5
1 V
a
b
10
I
0
+
-
2 I
0
+
-
I
s
I
1
I
2
3.8462
a
b
Fig. below gives the circuit for finding R
Th
.




Mesh current equations are:
5 I
1
+ 10 (I
1
- I
2
) - 2 (I
1
- I
2
) = 0 i.e. 13 I
1
- 8 I
2
= 0
1 + 10 (I
2
- I
1
) = 0 i.e. - 10 I
1
+ 10 I
2
= - 1
On solving, I
2
= - 0.26 A. Thus I
s
= - I
2
= 0.26 A. Therefore R
Th
= 1/ 0.26 = 3.8462
Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown below..




2
3
1
2 V
3 V
I
0
Example 5.10 Using Thevenins equivalent circuit, calculate the current I
0
through the
2 resistor in the circuit shown below.




Solution: Circuit by which V
Th
and R
Th
can be calculated are shown in Fig. 5.34.







3
1
2 V 3 V
+
-
V
Th
3
1
R
Th
Fig. 5.34 Circuits for V
Th
and R
Th
- Example 5.10.
a
b
3
1
2 V 3 V
+
-
V
Th
3
1
R
Th
a
b
I
0
2
2.25 V
0.75
a
b
Current I
0
= 2.25 / 2.75 = 0.8182 A








Knowing the anticlockwise current as 0.25 A
- 2 - (1 x 0.25) + V
Th
= 0. i.e. V
Th
= 2.25 V; Also R
Th
= 13 = 0.75
With these Thevenins equivalent circuit becomes




+
-
I
2
I
1
-
+
b
a
+
-
V
Th
Example 5.11 Use Thevenins equivalent circuit to find current I
L
in circuit shown.





Solution: To determine V
Th
we can use the circuit shown below.





Mesh current equations are:
(

5 j 8 3
3 - 2 j 8
(

Z
=
(

0
30 10
0
2
1
I
I

On solving, I
2
= 0.433Z9.73
0
A; Thus V
Th
= 5 I
2
= 2.165Z9.73
0
V
3

5

j 5

5

- j 2

10Z30
0
V
~
10Z30
0
V
5

3

5

j 5

- j 2

~
I
L
- j 2

2

b
I
L
a
+
-
b
a
Z
Th
To determine Z
Th
we can use the circuit shown below.





(5 - j 2)3 = (1.9412 - j 0.2647) ; (1.9412 - j 0.2647) + j 5 = (1.9412 + j 4.7353)
Z
Th
= (1.9412 + j 4.7353)5 = (2.5421 + j 1.6768)
Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown below.





Current I
L
= A 13.85 0.4754
0.3272 j 4.5421
9.73 2.165
0
0
Z =

Z

2.165Z9.73
0
V
- j 2

2

(2.5421 + j 1.6768)
~
5

3

5

j 5

- j 2

I
L
a
+
-
+
-
+
-
Example 5.12 Using Thevenins theorem, find the voltage V
2
in the circuit shown for
which the current through (2 + j 3) impedance is zero.




Solution:
Circuit below shows the calculation of current through (2 + j 3) using Thevenins
equivalent.




To make the current through (2 + j 3) to zero, voltage V
Th
should be zero.
V
Th
j 3

2

Z
Th
~
j 5

6

4

j 3

5

V
2
30Z0
0
V
~ ~
2

b

a

+
-
+
-
+
-
The circuit for determining voltage V
Th
is shown in Fig. 5. 43 in which ground is taken as
reference.






V
th
= V
a
- V
b
= 0 i.e. V
a
= V
b
.
Therefore 30 x
4 6
6
V
5 j 5
5 j
2
+
=
+
; i.e. 0.6 V
2
= 21.2132Z45
0

Thus voltage V
2
= 35.3553Z45
0
V
j 5

6

4

5

V
2
30Z0
0
V
~ ~
b

a

Fig. 5.43 Circuit - Example 5.12.
V
Th
+
-
+ -
+
-
Example 5.13 Using Thevenins theorem, find the current through the capacitor in the
circuit shown.






Solution: Circuit to find Thevenins voltage is shown below.






Voltage V
Th
= V
a
- V
b
= (200 x
2.4 j 1.2 2.1
4 2 j 1.2
+ +
+ .
) - (200 x )
6 j 3 5
6 j 3
+ +
+

= (116.7567 + j 60.5405) - (120 + j 60) = 3.2880Z170.54
0
V
b

a

3

j 2.4

j 6

1.2

2.1

5

200Z0
0
V ~
V
Th
b

3

j 6

1.2

- j 5

2.1

5

200Z0
0
V ~
a

j 2.4

Suitably redrawn circuit to find Thevenins impedance is shown in Fig. 5.46.








Z
Th
= Z
ab
= 2.1(1.2 + j 2.4) + 5(3 + j 6)
= ( 1.2259 + j 0.6357) + (3 + j 1.5) = (4.2259 + j 2.1357)
Current through the capacitor from a to b =
5 j 2.1357) j (4.2259
170.54 3.2847
0
+
Z

= 0.6434Z-155.33
0
A
b

a

3

j 2.4

j 6

1.2

2.1

5

Fig. 5.46 Thevenins impedance - Example 5.13.
+
-
+
-
I
1
+
-
+
-
+
+
-
I
2
Example 5.14 Obtain Thevenins equivalent of circuit shown.







Solution: Circuit to determine V
Th
is shown below.






Mesh current equations are: 6 I
1
+ 4 (I
1
- 5) + 2 (I
1
- I
2
) = 0 i.e. 12 I
1
- 2 I
2
= 20
2 (I
2
- I
1
) - 8 (5 - I
1
) = 0 i.e. 6 I
1
+ 2 I
2
= 40
On solving I
1
= 3.3333 A Voltage V
Th
= 6 I
2
= 20 V
b

a

V
X
2V
X
6

4

2
2

5 A

5 A

b

a

V
X
2V
X
6

4

2
2

5 A

V
Th
I
1
+
-
+
-
+
I
2
I
3
I
sc
20 V
6 a
b
+
-
Circuit to determine Z
Th
is shown below.






Mesh current equations are:
6( I
1
- I
3
) + 4 (I
1
- 5) + 2 (I
1
- I
2
) = 0 i.e. 12 I
1
- 2 I
2
- 6 I
3
= 20
2 (I
2
- I
1
) - 8 (5 - I
1
) = 0 i.e. 6 I
1
+ 2 I
2
= 40
2 I
3
+ 6 ( I
3
- I
1
) = 0 i.e. - 6 I
1
+ 8 I
3
= 0
On solving I
sc
= I
3
= 3.3333 A
Thus R
Th
= 20 / 3.3333 = 6
Thevenins equivalent circuit is shown.
5 A

b

a

V
X
2V
X
6

4

2
2

5 A


5.4 NORTONS THEOREM

Much similar to Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem is also used to obtain the
equivalent of two terminal sub-circuit.

Fig. 5.50 illustrates the Nortons equivalent of sub-circuit A.




In Fig. 5.50 (a) a circuit partitioned into two parts, namely circuit A and circuit B, is
shown. They are connected by a single pair of terminals. In Fig. 5.50 (b), circuit A is
replaced by Nortons equivalent circuit, which consists of a current source I
N
in parallel
with an impedance Z
N
.
Fig. 5.50 Nortons equivalent.
a
b

Circuit B
(a) (b)
a
b

Circuit B
I
N
Z
N

Circuit A
a
b
V
Th
+
-
a
b
I
N
(a) (b)
Looking at the Thevenins and Nortons equivalents shown in Fig. 5.51 (a) and (b), it is
clear that one can be obtained from the other through source transformation.





It is to be noted that
Z
N
= Z
Th
(5.3)
I
N
=
N
Th
Th
Th
Z
V
Z
V
= (5.4)
To obtain Nortons equivalent circuit, we need to find current I
N
and the impedance Z
N
.
They can be obtained from Thevenins voltage and impedance.

Circuit B
Z
Th
~

Circuit B
Z
N
Fig. 5.51 Thevenins and Nortons equivalents.
a
b
I
SC
Otherwise Nortons current can be obtained by finding the short circuit current as
indicated in Fig. 5. 52.





It is to be noted that the short circuit current is from terminal a to terminal b while
Nortons current is from terminal b to terminal a.
The impedance Z
N
can be got exactly same way we got Z
Th
as discussed in previous
section except that the method indicated under Case 2 is not applicable as it requires
the value of V
Th
.
Fig. 5.52 Getting short circuit current.

Circuit A
R
L
4
1
3 V
I
L
a
b
(a) (b)
4
1
3 V
I
SC
a
b
4
1
a
b
R
N
Example 5.15
Using Nortons theorem, determine the current through the resistor R
L
when R
L
= 0.7,
1.2 and 1.6 in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.53.



Solution:
Circuits to determine I
SC
and R
N
are shown in Fig. 5.54 (a) and (b).




Fig. 5.53 Circuit for Example 5.15.
Fig. 5.54 Short circuit current and Nortons resistance.
(a) (b)
4
1
3 V
I
SC
a
b
4
1
a
b
R
N
R
N
can be obtained
by another method
also.





It is to be noted that since there is a short circuit parallel to 4 no current flows in it.
Nortons current I
N
= 3 A; Nortons resistance R
N
= 14 = 0.8
Nortons equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5.55.





When R
L
= 0.7 , I
L
= (0.8 / 1.5) x 3 = 1.6 A; When R
L
= 1.2 , I
L
= (0.8 / 2) x 3 = 1.2 A
When R
L
= 1.6 , I
L
= (0.8 / 2.4) x 3 = 1.0 A
3 A
0.8
R
L I
L
Fig. 5.55 Nortons equivalent - Example 5.15.
a

b
I
SC
5
j 5
- j 5
B
A
Z
N
(a) (b)
5
j 5
- j 5
-
+
B
A
5
j 5
- j 5
-
+
B
A
Example 5.16 For the circuit shown below, determine the Nortons equivalent circuit
with respect to terminals A and B and hence find the current in two impedances
Z
1
= (5 - j 5) and Z
2
= 100 connected in turn to the terminals A-B. Also determine
the real power delivered to the impedances.




Solution:
Circuit to find Nortons current and impedances are shown in Fig. 5.57 (a) and (b).






Fig. 5.57 Circuits for Nortons current and impedance - Example 5.16.
50Z0
0
V ~
50Z0
0
V ~
I
SC
5
j 5
- j 5
B
A
Z
N
(a) (b)
5
j 5
- j 5
-
+
B
A
Nortons equivalent circuit
5
- j 5
B
A







No current will flow through (5 + j 5) .; Current I
SC
= A 90 10
5 j
50
0
Z =

Impedance Z
N
= (- j 5)(5 + j 5) = (5 - j 5) .






50Z0
0
V ~
10Z90
0
A

5
- j 5
B
A






When Z
1
= (5 - j 5) is connected across A-B, because of equal impedances, current
through Z
1
= A 90 5 90 10 x
2
1
0 0
Z = Z .
Real power delivered to Z
1
= 5
2
x 5 = 125 W
When Z
2
= 10 is connected across A-B,
current through Z
2
= A 63.43 4.4721 90 10 x
5 j - 15
5 j - 5
0 0
Z = Z
Real power delivered to Z
2
= 4.4721
2
x 10 = 199.9968 W
10Z90
0
A

b
a
I
N
+
-
+
-
Example 5.17 Using Nortons theorem, find voltage V
2
in the circuit shown , such that
current through (2 + j 3) impedance is zero.





Solution: Nortons equivalent circuit is shown below.







Fig. 5.60 Nortons equivalent circuit - Example 5.17.
Z
N
2

j 3

V
2
j 5

6

4

j 3

5

30Z0
0
V
~ ~
2

b

a

+
-
+
-
I
1 I
SC
I
2
To make the current through (2 + j 3) zero, Nortons current and hence the short
current should be zero.
Circuit to find short circuit current is shown.





(
(
(

+
+
10 6 - 0
6 - 6 j 5 5 j
0 5 j 5 j 5
(
(
(

2
1
I
I
I
SC
=
(
(
(

Z
2
0
V -
0
0 30

Using Cramers rule

Current I
SC
=
Z
10 V 0
6 0 5 j
0 30 5 j 5
2

+
; For current I
SC
to be zero
(5 + j 5) ( - 6 V
2
) + j 5 (300) = 0; i.e. V
2
= V 45 35.3553
45 42.4264
90 1500
0
0
0
Z =
Z
Z

V
2
j 5

6

4

5

30Z0
0
V
~ ~
b
a

+
-
+
-
+
-
Example 5.18 Find the current I
0
in the 2 resistor in the circuit shown using
Nortons equivalent.




Solution: To determine Nortons current, 2 resistor is short circuited. Since 60 is
in parallel with 2 , voltage across 60 reduces to zero and hence voltage V
X
is zero.
Therefore Nortons current I
N
= 36 / 12 = 3 A
Circuit by which Nortons resistance can be obtained is shown below.




1 A
2 V
X
12
60 V
X
I
0
2
2 V
X
12
60 36 V

V
X
+
-
2
3 A
0.4762
I
0
Circuit by which Nortons resistance can be obtained is shown below.




Voltage across the current source is equal to Nortons resistance R
N
.
Writing the node voltage equation
1 V 2
60
V
12
V
X
X X
= + + ; On solving, V
X
= 0.4762 V; Thus R
N
= 0.4762



Current I
0
= A 0.5769 3 x
2.4762
0.4762
=
1 A
2 V
X
12
60 V
X
Nortons equivalent circuit