M. MARIA ANTONY RAJ PhD Scholar (UGC-Junior Research Fellow) Department of Social Work Pondicherry University Email: antony.buddha@gmail.com Mobile: 9003348980
Scientific method and Logic of reasoning
Induction
Deduction
Quantitative research and Qualitative research
Steps in Research
- Hypothesis
- Research Design - Sampling Design
- Tool for data collection
Methodological terms
Population Collection of all individuals or objects or items under study and denoted by N Sample - A part of a population and denoted by n
Variable - Characteristic of an individual or object. - Independent and Dependent variables - Qualitative and Quantitative variables Parameter Characteristic of the population Statistic Characteristic of the sample
Hypothesis
A tentative statement which can be put to test Karl Popper
Conditions: 1. Minimum two variables 2. Variables should be definable and measurable 3. Already existing relationship between variables 4. Relationship should be tested through empirically and statistically
Types of Hypothesis
1. Alternative Hypothesis a. One tail b. Two tail
2. Null Hypothesis
Steps in Testing a Hypothesis
1. State the Null hypothesis 2. Select an Appropriate Test Statistic 3. Fix the Level of Significance () 4. Compute the Test statistic 5. Make Decision regarding Acceptance or Rejection of Null Hypothesis and in turn Research Hypothesis
Rule of Acceptance or Rejection of Null Hypothesis
P value < 0.05, (CV<TV), Reject Null Hypothesis
P value > 0.05, (CV>TV), Accept Null Hypothesis
Level of measurement
The concepts are operationally defined to measure them. 1. Nominal - classified into different mutually exclusive categories Ex: Sex, religion 2. Ordinal - lowerness or higherness than other response-Rank order Ex: Education 3. Interval - values for the variable on an equally spaced continuum, -difference between 8 and 9 is the same as the difference between 76 and 77. Ex: IQ, level of awareness 4. Ratio - There is a rationale zero point for the scale, Ratios are equivalent, Ex: the ratio of 2 to 1 is the same as the ratio of 8 to 4.
Permissible Arithmetic Operations
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Counting Greater than or less than operations. Addition and subtraction of scale values. Multiplication and division of scale values. Exercise: Identify the level of measurement for the following variables? 1. Age in Completed Years - 35, 54, 25, 5, 17, etc. 2. Sex - Male , Female 3. Socio-Economic Status - Low, Medium, High 4. Age - Young, Adult, Old 5. Time in Seconds - 5, 43, 52, 14, etc. 6. Size of Village - 400, 500, 431, 651, etc. 7. Religion-Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Jains, Sikhs etc. 8. Marks Obtained by Students - 35% , 48%, 78%, 25%, etc. 9. Days of a Week - Sunday, Tuesday, Saturday, etc. 10. Place of Birth - Rural, Urban, Semi Rural 11. State of Birth-Maharashtra, Bihar,U.P.,Gujarat, etc. 12. Field of Expertise - Science, Commerce, Arts, Engineering, Medicine, etc. 13. Position Held in a Organization-Manager, Supervisor, Driver, Peon, etc. 13 Systolic Blood Pressure - 130, 160, 110, 120, etc. 14. Intelligence Quotients - 65, 75, 89, etc. 15. Education level-Illiterate, Primary, Middle, HSC, etc. 16. Occupation-Agriculture, Labour, Service, Housework, Student, Aged, etc.
Selecting appropriate statistical test
Independent Dependent Statistical test Association Nominal/Ordinal
Interval/Ratio Correlation Karl Pearson r Significance Diff Nominal/Ordinal (2 category)
Interval/Ratio
Independent t test Nominal/Ordinal (more than 2 cate) Interval/Ratio
One way ANOVA Cause and Effect Interval/Ratio
Interval/Ratio Regression Types of Analysis
1. Descriptive 2. Associational 3. Inferential A. Summarisation of data 1. Frequency distribution 2. Graphical display 3. Measures of location (central tendency) 4. Measures of Dispersion 5. Measures of Skewness & Kurtosis B. Associational statistics 1. Measures of Association 2. Measures of correlation 3. Measures of Partial and Multiple Correlation(s)
C. Tests of Hypothesis t-test, ANOVA, Chi Square, Proportion test, Significance of Correlation(s), Regression coefficients D. Multivariate Analysis Regression analysis, Logistic Regression, Factor analysis, Cluster analysis, Discriminant analysis, Path analysis, Structural Equation Modelling
Training on SPSS 1. Data Entry 2. Data Cleaning Frequencies, Explore 3. Data Analysis a. Univariate Analysis b. Bivariate Analysis c. Multivariate Analysis
Chi square
Above table shows that P value < 0.05. Hence the Null hypothesis is rejected. So there is no association between variables.
Correlation
Table shows that P value < 0.05. Hence the Null hypothesis is rejected. So there is a relationship between age and level of awareness.
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi- Square 3148.46 5(a) 20 .000 Age Level of awareness Age Pearson Correlation 1 -.398(**) Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 6427 6427 Level of awareness Pearson Correlation -.398(**) 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 6427 6427
ANOVA
Table shows that P value < 0.05. Hence the Null hypothesis is rejected. So there is a significant difference between Hindu, Christian and Muslim regarding their their level of awareness. Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 6926.607 3 2308.869 640.113 .000 Within Groups 23167.568 6423 3.607 Total 30094.175 6426
T Test
Table shows that P value > 0.05. Hence the Null hypothesis is Accepted. So there is no significant difference between male and female regarding their level of awareness.
Note: In the Levene's Test for Equality of Variances - sig value or P value > 0.05 then Equal variances assumed, if P value > 0.05 then Equal variances not assumed.
Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2- tailed) Mean Differe nce Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference