Control Components

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Introduction to Control Systems
Every activity in our day to day life is
influenced by some sort of control system.
Control systems are now integral parts of
modern industrialization, industrial processes
and home appliances. Hence the control
systems and its components plays very
important role in our daily life. In this lecture
we will study the various control components.
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Introduction to Control Systems
A control system consisting of interconnected components is designed to
achieve a desired purpose. To understand the purpose of a control system,
it is useful to examine examples of control systems through the course of
history. These early systems incorporated many of the same ideas of
feedback that are in use today.

Modern control engineering practice includes the use of control design
strategies for improving manufacturing processes, the efficiency of energy
use, advanced automobile control, including rapid transit, among others.

We also discuss the notion of a design gap. The gap exists between the
complex physical system under investigation and the model used in the
control system synthesis.

The iterative nature of design allows us to handle the design gap effectively
while accomplishing necessary tradeoffs in complexity, performance, and
cost in order to meet the design specifications.
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Control Components
There are various types of control components
1. Error Detectors
2. Potentiometers
3. Synchros
4. AC & DC Techogenerators
5. AC & DC Servomotors
6. Stepper Motors
7. Magnetic Amplifiers
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Error Detectors
All feedback control systems operate from the
error signal which is generated by a
comparison of the reference and the output.
Error detectors perform the crucial task of
comparing the reference and output signals.
In a purely electrical system where the
reference and output are voltages, the error
detector is a simple comparator.
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Error Detectors
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Error Detectors
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Error Detectors
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Error Detectors
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Potentiometer
A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-
terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms
an adjustable voltage divider. If only two
terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts
as a variable resistor or rheostat.
A potentiometer measuring instrument is
essentially a voltage divider used for
measuring electric potential (voltage); the
component is an implementation of the same
principle, hence its name.

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Potentiometer
Potentiometers are commonly used to control
electrical devices such as volume controls on
audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by
a mechanism can be used as
position transducers, for example, in
a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to
directly control significant power (more than
a watt), since the power dissipated in the
potentiometer would be comparable to the
power in the controlled load
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Potentiometer Diagram
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Potentiometer Symbol
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Potentiometer Construction
Potentiometers comprise a resistive element,
a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along the
element, making good electrical contact with
one part of it, electrical terminals at each end
of the element, a mechanism that moves the
wiper from one end to the other, and a
housing containing the element and wiper.
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Potentiometer Construction
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Potentiometer Construction
Another type is the linear slider potentiometer,
which has a wiper which slides along a linear
element instead of rotating. Contamination can
potentially enter anywhere along the slot the
slider moves in, making effective sealing more
difficult and compromising long-term reliability.
An advantage of the slider potentiometer is that
the slider position gives a visual indication of its
setting. While the setting of a rotary
potentiometer can be seen by the position of a
marking on the knob, an array of sliders can give
a visual impression of the effect of a multi-
channel equalizer
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Potentiometer Construction
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Theory of operation
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Theory of operation
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage
divider to obtain a manually adjustable output
voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input
voltage applied across the two ends of the
potentiometer. This is their most common use.
The voltage across can be calculated by:

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Potentiometer as an Error Detector
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Potentiometer as an Error Detector
DC Motor control systems potentiometers can
be used as position feedback as shown in the
previous slide. The reference position of shaft
is compared by a pair of two pots and
reference input is fed to DC Amplifier, which is
further amplifying the armature current of the
DC Motor.
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Potentiometer as an Error Detector
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Synchros
A synchro is a type of rotary electrical transformer that
is used for measuring the angle of a rotating machine
such as an antenna platform. In its general physical
construction, it is much like an electric motor. The
primary winding of the transformer, fixed to the rotor,
is excited by an alternating current, which
by electromagnetic induction, causes currents to flow
in three star-connected secondary windings fixed at
120 degrees to each other on the stator. The relative
magnitudes of secondary currents are measured and
used to determine the angle of the rotor relative to the
stator, or the currents can be used to directly drive a
receiver synchro that will rotate in unison with the
synchro transmitter
23 Pnjab Edusat Society
Synchros
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Synchro Operation
On a practical level, Synchros resemble motors, in that
there is a rotor, stator, and a shaft. Ordinarily, slip
rings and brushes connect the rotor to external power.
A synchro transmitter's shaft is rotated by the
mechanism that sends information, while the synchro
receiver's shaft rotates a dial, or operates a light
mechanical load. Single and three-phase units are
common in use, and will follow the other's rotation
when connected properly. One transmitter can turn
several receivers; if torque is a factor, the transmitter
must be physically larger to source the additional
current.
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Synchro as Error Detector
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Uses of Synchros
Synchro systems were first used in the control
system of the Panama Canal in the early 1900s
to transmit lock gate and valve stem positions
and water levels to the control desks
Fire-control system designs developed
during World War II used synchros extensively,
to transmit angular information from guns and
sights to an analog fire control computer, and
to transmit the desired gun position back to
the gun location.
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Uses of Synchros
Smaller synchros are still used to remotely drive
indicator gauges and as rotary position sensors for
aircraft control surfaces, where the reliability of these
rugged devices is needed. Digital devices such as
the rotary encoder have replaced synchros in most
other applications.
Selsyn motors were widely used in motion
picture equipment to synchronize movie
cameras and sound recording equipment.
Large synchros were used on naval warships, such as
destroyers, to operate the steering gear from the
wheel on the bridge.
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Tachogenerators (Tachometers)
Tachometer is an electromechanical unit
which generates an electrical output
proportional to the speed of the shaft. In
automatic control system tachometer
performs two main functions:
Stabilization of system
Computation of closed loops in a control
system
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Tachogenerators
Tachometers are mainly of two types:
DC Tachometer
AC Tachometer
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DC Tachometer
This is a small dc generator. It contains a
permanent magnet and an iron core rotor. No
external supply voltage is required. The
winding on rotor are connected to
commutator segments and the output voltage
is taken across pair of brushes that ride on the
commutator segments. DC tachometers
provide visual speed readout of a rotating
shaft. Such tachometers are directly coupled
to a voltmeter which is calibrated in r.p.m.
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DC Tachometer
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DC Tachometer
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DC Tachometer as Error Detector
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AC Tachometer
The AC tachometer is a device, which is similar
to a two phase induction motor, in which two
stator windings are placed in quadrature with
each other and rotor is short circuited. In AC
Tachometer, a sinusoidal voltage of rated
value is applied to the primary winding, which
is known as reference winding, the secondary
winding is placed 90 degrees apart from
primary winding. The magnitude of sinusoidal
output voltage is directly proportional to the
speed of rotor.
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AC Tachometer
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AC Tachometer
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AC Tachometer
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Servo System
A closed-loop motion system using a current
amplifier, servo controller, servomotor and a
position feedback device such as an encoder
to precisely control speed and position of a
load.
The MOTOR can be electric, hydraulic,
pneumatic or even internal combustion.
The FEEDBACK sensor can be mechanical or
electronic, analog or digital and it can be
rotary or linear
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A Basic Servo System
A servo controller
with external input
Motor connected to a
feedback device
Is a closed loop
system
How might this system
work?

The Feedback device can
be Relative or Absolute.
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Servomotors
The servo system is the one, in which the
output is some mechanical variable such as
position, velocity or acceleration. The motors
used in the servo systems are called
servomotors. These motors are usually
coupled to the output shaft for power
matching. There are two types of servo
motors
AC Servomotors
DC Servomotors
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DC Servo Motors
DC servo motors are controlled by DC
command signals applied directly to coils
The magnetic fields that are formed interact
with permanent magnets and cause the
rotating member to turn
One type of PM uses a wound armature and
brushes like a conventional DC motor, but uses
magnets as pole pieces
Another type uses wound field coils and a
permanent magnet rotor
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Wound Armature PM Motor
Armature contains wound coils
Current is supplied by brushes
Pole pieces are made of permanent magnets
Typically 2 or 4-pole structure
Similar characteristics to a DC shunt motor

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Moving Coil Motor
The stator field is provided with 8 pairs of
permanent magnets
Arranged to provide alternating magnetic
fields
The armature is made of thin disc of fiberglass
laminated with copper conductors

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Moving Coil Operation
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DC Servo Motors
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DC Servo Motors
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DC Servo Motors
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Torque-Speed Curve of a
DC Servomotor
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AC Servo Motors
Controlled by AC command signals applied to
the coils
AC Brushless Servo Motor
Operates on the same principle as single-phase
induction motor
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Two windings
Main winding
Auxiliary winding
Electronic drive provides the necessary phase shift for motor
operation

AC Brushless Servo Motor
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Stepper Motors
Conventional servo motors are classified as
continuous rotation motors
Stepper motors rotate through a specific
number of degrees, or steps, then stop
Each incoming pulse results in the shaft
turning a specific angular distance
Stepper motors can control velocity, distance,
and direction of mechanical load
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Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
PM stepper motors have rotor teeth made of
permanent magnets
Reaction of the rotor teeth to stator fields provides
torque for the motor
Signals are applied to the stator to determine
direction and step rate of the rotor

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Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
The variable reluctance
stepper motor uses
electromagnetic stator
poles
The soft iron core is un-
magnetized
The rotor is toothed,
alternating N-S
The more teeth, the
greater the resolution
Stepper Motor Terminology
Stepping Rate - maximum number of steps the
motor can make in one second
Step Angle - number of degrees per arc the
motor moves per step
Step angle is determined by the number of rotor
teeth and stator poles used
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Stepper Motor Speed
Stepper motor speed depends upon the
step angle and stepping rate

n =
Y x S
6
n = Speed in RPM
Y = Step angles in degrees
S = Steps per second
6 = Formula constant
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Microstepping
Stepper motors tend to jerk at low speeds
Stepper motors have limited resolution
Microstepping overcomes these problems
Uses simulated sine waves that increment or
decrement in small steps called microsteps
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Microstepper Operation
Rotor
Stator
Coils
2
1
S
N
1
2
Outside Casing
Stator
Rotor
Internal components of a Stepper Motor
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2
2
1
N
S
1
S
N
Stators
Rotor
Cross Section of a Stepper Motor
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2
2
1
1
S
N
S
N
N N
SS
1
ab
Winding number 1
2
ab
Winding number 2
One
step 6 pole rotor
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Rotor
Stator coils
CNC Stepping Motor
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Advantages:-
Low cost for control achieved
Ruggedness
Simplicity of construction
Can operate in an open loop control system
Low maintenance
Less likely to stall or slip
Will work in any environment
Disadvantages:-
Require a dedicated control circuit
Use more current than D.C. motors
High torque output achieved at low speeds
Advantages / Disadvantages
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Magnetic Amplifiers
The magnetic amplifier (known as a "mag amp") is
an electromagnetic device for amplifying electrical
signals. The magnetic amplifier was invented early in
the 20th century, and was used as an alternative
to vacuum tube amplifiers where robustness and high
current capacity were required. World War
II Germany perfected this type of amplifier, and it was
used in the V-2 rocket The magnetic amplifier has now
been largely superseded by the transistor-based
amplifier, except in a few safety critical, high reliability
or extremely demanding applications. Combinations of
transistor and mag-amp techniques are still used.
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Strength of Magnetic Amplifiers
The magnetic amplifier is a static device with no
moving parts. It has no wear-out mechanism and
has a good tolerance to mechanical shock and
vibration. It requires no warm-up time. Multiple
isolated signals may be summed by additional
control windings on the magnetic cores. The
windings of a magnetic amplifier have a higher
tolerance to momentary overloads than
comparable solid-state devices. The magnetic
amplifier is also used as a transducer in
applications such as current measurement and
the flux gate compass.

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Limitations of Magnetic Amplifiers
The gain available from a single stage is limited
and low compared to electronic amplifiers.
Frequency response of a high gain amplifier is
limited to about one-tenth the excitation
frequency, although this is often mitigated by
exciting magnetic amplifiers with currents at
higher than utility frequency Solid-state
amplifiers can be more compact and efficient
than magnetic amplifiers. The bias and feedback
windings are not unilateral, and may couple
energy back from the controlled circuit into the
control circuit. This complicates the design of
multistage amplifiers when compared with
electronic devices.
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Principle of operation
Visually a mag amp device may resemble
a transformer but the operating principle is quite
different from a transformer - essentially the mag
amp is a saturable reactor. It makes use
of magnetic saturation of the core, a non-linear
property of a certain class of transformer cores.
For controlled saturation characteristics the
magnetic amplifier employs core materials that
have been designed to have a specific B-H
curve shape that is highly rectangular, in contrast
to the slowly-tapering B-H curve of softly
saturating core materials that are often used in
normal transformers
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Principle of operation
The typical magnetic amplifier consists of two
physically separate but similar transformer magnetic
cores, each of which has two windings - a control
winding and an AC winding. A small DC current from a
low impedance source is fed into the series-connected
control windings. The AC windings may be connected
either in series or in parallel, the configurations
resulting in different types of mag amps. The amount
of control current fed into the control winding sets the
point in the AC winding waveform at which either core
will saturate. In saturation, the AC winding on the
saturated core will go from a high impedance state
("off") into a very low impedance state ("on") - that is,
the control current controls at which voltage the mag
amp switches "on".
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Principle of operation
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Magnetic Amplifier
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Magnetic Amplifier
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Applications of Magnetic Amplifier
Magnetic amplifiers were important as modulation and
control amplifiers in the early development of voice
transmission by radio.
The ability to control large currents with small control
power made magnetic amplifiers useful for control of
lighting circuits, for stage lighting and for advertising
signs.
Magnetic amplifiers were used extensively as the
switching element in early switched-mode (SMPS)
power supplies.
Magnetic amplifiers are still used in some arc welders

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Applications of Magnetic Amplifier
Magnetic amplifiers can be used for measuring
high DC-voltages without direct connection to the
high voltage and are therefore still used in
the HVDC-technique
Magnetic amplifiers were used by locomotives to
detect wheel slip
Magnetic amplifiers are also still used in
instrumentation for measuring current
Such instrumentation mag. amps. are commonly
found on space craft where a clean
electromagnetic environment is highly desirable.

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