20085316518875

Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary
nothing can be conveyed.

English Lexicology (II)
English Lexicology(II) 2
Contents
5. Word-Formation I: the Major Processes
6. Word-Formation II: the Minor Processes
7. Motivation

To be continued
Chapter 5 Word-Formation I:
The Major Processes
5.1 General Remarks
5.2 Prefixation
5.3 Suffixation
5.4 Conversion
5.5 Compounding
5.1 General Remarks
The three major processes
affixation or derivation (17.5%)
Prefixation
suffixation
conversion (10.5%)
composition or compounding (27%)
5.2 Prefixation
The definition of prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding
prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the
word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.
However, there is an insignificant number of class-
changing prefixes
Non-class-changing prefixes: natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-
unfair
Class-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger, form-
deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollege
5.2 Prefixation
The classification of prefixes
In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes)
are classified according to their source, but this
does not seem to help from a practical point of
view. It seems more helpful to classify the most
important productive prefixes by their meaning
into the following ten categories:

5.2 Prefixation
1) Negative prefixes

a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,
dis- dishonest, discontent, discover, disobey, disagree
in- Incomplete, inconsistent, incorrect, invulnerable,
illogical, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance,
irrational, irregular
non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic,
nonadjustable, nonalcoholic
un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest
5.2 Prefixation
Order
Literate
Symmetry
Governmental
Relevant
Productive
Believable
Vulnerable
Sane
Related
Aligned
Mature

Disorder
Illiterate
Asymmetry
Nongovernmental
Irrelevant
Unproductive
Unbelievable
Invulnerable
Insane
Unrelated
Nonaligned
Immature

5.2 Prefixation
2) Reversative or privative

de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, deformed,
denationalize
un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask
dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested
5.2 Prefixation
Centralize
Plane
Infect
Zip
Regulate
Possess
Pollute

Decentralize
Deplane
Disinfect
Unzip
Deregulate
Dispossess
Depollute

5.2 Prefixation
3) Pejorative prefixes

mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice,
misgiving
mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction,
maldevelopment
pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic,
pseudo-friend
5.2 Prefixation
4) Prefixes of degree or size

hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious
ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative
mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt
out- outdo, outgrown, outlive
over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden
under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate
super- supermarket, superpower, superstar
sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom
5.2 Prefixation
Computer
Critical
Conscious
Natural
Sensitive
Simple
Number
Statement
culture
Minicomputer
Ultracritic /hypercritic
Subconscious
Supernatural
Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive
Oversimple
Outnumber
Understatement
Subculture

5.2 Prefixation
5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude

co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation
counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive,
counterattack, counterculture, countermeasure
anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial,
anticancer, antibody
pro- pro-American, pro-revolutionary, pro-Fascism , pro-
student, proslavery
5.2 Prefixation
6) Locative prefixes
fore- forearm, foreleg, forename, foreword
inter- international, intergovernmental, intertwine,
interdisciplinary, intercollege
trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant
tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication
5.2 Prefixation
View
Conference
Continental
Ground
Cast
Specific
Racial
Shore

Interview
teleconference
Intercontinental
Foreground
Telecast
Transpacific
Transracial
Foreshore

5.2 Prefixation
7) Prefixes of time and order

ex- ex-husband, ex-president, ex-colony, ex-convict
fore- foresee, foretell, forefather, forewarn
pre- premature, prewar, prehistoric, prepay, premarital
post- post-election, postwar, postgraduate, postdoctoral
5.2 Prefixation
8) Number prefixes

uni-/mono- unilateral, unicell, unicircuit, unicolor, unicycle,
unidimensional, uniform, unipolar, monoxide, monocrystal,
monogamy, monologue
bi-/di- bicycle, bilingual, bimonthly, dioxide, dialogue, dichotomy,
disyllable
tri- triangular, triatomic, trimonthly, trilateral, trilingual
multi-/poly- multipurpose, multipolar, multiangular, multilingual,
polyatomic, polycrystal, polygamy
semi- semicircle, semiliterate, semivowel, semiannual,
semicolony, semiautomatic
5.2 Prefixation
Lingual
Lateral
Polar
Dimensional
Unilingual, bilingual,
trilingual, multilingual
Unilateral, bilateral,
trilateral, multilateral
Unipolar, bipolar, tripolar,
multipolar
Unidimensional,
bidimensional,
tridimensional (three-
dimensional),
multidimensional

5.2 Prefixation
9) Conversion prefixes

a- aloud, asleep, aglow, awash
be- belittle, bestir, befriend, bewitch
en- endanger, enforce, enable, embody, embitter, empower
5.2 Prefixation
10) Miscellaneous prefixes
Extra- Extralinguistic, extraordinary, extraterrestrial
Neo- Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism, neo-fascism,
Neolithic
Pan- Pan-Pacific, Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism
..
5.3 Suffixation
The definition of suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of new words by
adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which
primarily change the meaning of the stem,
suffixes have only a small semantic role, their
primary function being to change the
grammatical function of stems. In other words,
they mainly change the word class. However,
they may also add attached meaning to the stem.
5.3 Suffixation
The classification of suffixes
Since suffixes mainly change the word class, we
shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into
1) noun suffixes
2) adjective suffixes
3) adverb suffixes
4) verb suffixes

5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes
Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the
following five kinds.
Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)
Deverbal nouns
De-adjectival nouns
Noun and adjective suffixes
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes

Denominal nouns (concrete)
-eer auctioneer, engineer, mountaineer, pamphleteer,
profiteer, racketeer
-er Londoner, teenager, villager
-ess actress, waitress, stewardess, hostess, lioness
-let booklet, leaflet, piglet, starlet
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes

Denominal nouns (abstract)
-age baggage, luggage, mileage, percentage
-dom freedom, kingdom, stardom, officialdom
-ery/-ry drudgery, slavery, nunnery, nursery, machinery
-ism idealism, optimism, individualism, consumerism
-ship dictatorship, scholarship, friendship, sportsmanship
-ocrasy aristocracy, democracy, meritocracy
-hood boyhood, brotherhood, neighborhood, adulthood
-ful handful, mouthful, plateful, tubful
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes

Deverbal nouns
-ant contestant, inhabitant, assistant, informant
-ee interviewee, addressee, appointee, nominee, employee
-er/-or driver, employer, interviewer, computer, silencer, accelerator,
supervisor, actor, window-shopper
-ation foundation, exploration, nomination, starvation
-ing building, dwelling, earnings, savings, clothing, stuffing
-al refusal, revival, survival, arrival, dismissal
-ment amazement, arrangement, movement, government
-age breakage, coverage, shrinkage, drainage
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes

De-adjectival nouns
-ity diversity, equality, rapidity, verbosity, responsibility,
actuality, regularity, popularity, respectability
-ness accurateness, falseness, kindness, selfishness,
happiness, largeness, frankness, unexpectedness,
thickness, goodness
5.3 Suffixation
1) Noun suffixes

Nouns and adjective suffixes
-ese Burmese, Chinese, Cantonese, officialese, journalese
-(i)an Darwinian, republican, Elizabethan, Shakespearean,
Indonesian, Russian
-ist communist, pianist, specialist, socialist
5.3 Suffixation
2) Adjective Suffixes

Denominal suffixes
-ed dogged, rugged, pointed, chocolate-flavored
-ful delightful, successful, faithful, meaningful
-ish childish, foolish, snobbish, Irish, Turkish
-less homeless, hopeless, merciless, harmless
-like childlike, ladylike, statesmanlike
-ly friendly, cowardly, motherly, daily, weekly
-y milky, sandy, hairy, meaty
5.3 Suffixation

Denominal suffixes
-ic (-atic) ethnic, economic, historic, problematic
-ous (-ious,
-eous)
ambitious, desirous, marvelous, courageous,
erroneous, courteous
-al (-ial, -ical) accidental, professional, residential, musical,
philosophical
5.3 Suffixation

Deverbal suffixes
-able (-ible,
-uble)
debatable, drinkable, changeable, perishable,
permissible, visible, dissoluble, soluble
-ive (-ative,
-sive)
attractive, reflective, productive, negative,
decorative, talkative, affirmative, expansive,
explosive, decisive
5.3 Suffixation
3) Adverb Suffixes

-ly smoothly, personally, extremely, publicly, naturally
-ward(s) downward, eastward, homeward, forward
-wise clockwise, lengthwise, weatherwise, educationwise,
taxwise, moneywise
5.3 Suffixation
4) Verb suffixes

-ate Originate, hyphenate
-en Deepen, harden, strengthen, hasten
-ify Solidify, modify, beautify, classify, identify
-ize(-ise) Symbolize, computerize, legalize, publicize,
specialize
5.3 Suffixation
False
Sterile
Intense
Fat
Horror
Memory
Apology

Falsify
Sterilize
Intensify
Fatten
Horrify
Memorize
Apologize
5.4 Conversion
The definition of conversion
Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word
of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of
another without the addition of an affix. It is also
called zero derivation().

5.4 Conversion
Major types of conversion
Noun-verb conversion
Verb-noun conversion
Adjective-noun conversion

5.4 Conversion
Noun-verb conversion
He elbowed his way through the crowd.
Problems snowballed by the hour.
The newspaper headlined his long record of
accomplishments.
Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to
Camp David.

5.4 Conversion
Abuse
Advice
House
Use
Belief
Grief
Shelf
mouth
Abuse
Advise
House
Use
Believe
Grieve
Shelve
Mouth
Changes of pronunciation and spelling
5.4 Conversion
He was admitted to the university after a three-
year wait.
This little restaurant is quite a find.
It is a good buy.
He took a close look at the machine.
doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply,
divide
5.4 Conversion
Phrasal verb-noun conversion

Right branching Left branching
Break down Breakdown Break out Outbreak
Pick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill
Take over Take-over Start up Upstart
Get together Get-together Put in Input
Break through Breakthrough Keep up upkeep
5.4 Conversion
Conflict
Abstract
Contrast
Decrease
Discount
Export
Rebel

Permit
Progress
Protest
Transfer
Transplant
Survey
Torment

Shift of stress
5.4 Conversion
Partial conversion
Complete conversion
5.4 Conversion
Partial conversion
Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the
deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded
Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in sh, -se, -ch): the
English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch
Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the
sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the
sublime to the ridiculous
Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the
accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned
5.4 Conversion
Complete conversion
A native, two natives, a returned native
He is a natural for the job.
Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for a drink
about this time every night.
To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately
passionate.
They are the creatives in the advertising department.
5.5 Compounding
The definition of compounding
Composition or compounding is a word-
formation process consisting of joining two or
more bases to form a new unit, a compound
word. It is a common device which has been
productive at every period of the English
language. Today the largest number of new
words are formed by compounding.
5.5 Compounding
Forms of compounds
Solid: bedtime, honeymoon
Hyphenated: above-mentioned, town-planning
Open: reading material, hot line
5.5 Compounding
Types of compounds
Noun compounds
Adjective compounds
Verb compounds
5.5 Compounding
Noun compounds
Headache, housekeeping, hot line, swimming
pool, raindrop, breakdown, biological clock,
identity crisis

5.5 Compounding
Adjective compounds
Weather-beaten rocks, peaceloving people,
everlasting friendship, a difficult-to-operate
machine, a made-up story, an on the spot
inspection, taxfree products, fire-proof dress

5.5 Compounding
Verb compounds
Formed by back-formation
house-keep from housekeeper
windowshop from window-shopping
mass produce from mass production
hen-peck from hen-pecked
spoon-feed from spoon-fed.

5.5 Compounding
Verb compounds
Formed by conversion
to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to
honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-
talk, to job-hop.

Chapter 6 Word-Formation II:
The Minor Processes
6.1 Blending
6.2 Backformation
6.3 Shortening
6.4 Analogy
6.1 Blending
The definition of blending
Blendingis a process of word-
formation in which a new word is formed by
combining parts of two words. The result of such
a process is called a blend or telescopic word or
portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of
both compounding and abbreviation. Structurally
blends may be divided into four types (see page
45-46).

6.1 Blending
Examples
newscast (newsbroadcast)
brunch (breakfastlunch)
smog (smokefog)
talkathon (talkmarathon)
slimnastics (slimgymnastics)
videophone ( video telephone)
6.1 Blending
sci-fi
hi-fi
workaholic
stagflation
Unicom
sitcom
motel
dawk

sciencefiction
highfidelity
workalcoholic
stagnationinflation
United Communications
situationcomedy
motorhotel
dovehawk

6.2 Backformation
The definition of backformation
Back-formation is a process of
word-formation by which a word is created by
the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also
known as a reverse derivation.
6.2 Backformation
Examples
edit from editor
automate from automation
enthuse from enthusiasm
gloom from gloomy
donate from donation
brainwash from brainwashing
sleep-walk from sleep-walking
6.3 Shortening
Types of shortening or abbreviation

1) clipped words: those created by
clipping part of the word (usually a noun),
leaving only a piece of the old word. The clipped
form is normally regarded as informal.

6.3 Shortening

2) initialisms: a type of
shortening, using the first letters of words to
form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase;
an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.

6.3 Shortening

3) acronyms: words formed
from the initial letters of words and pronounced
as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that
they are pronounced as words rather than as
sequences of letters.

6.3 Shortening
1) Clipped words
ad=advertisement
expo=exposition
phone=telephone
pro=professional
memo=memorandum
tec=detective
heli or copter=helicopter
comfy=comfortable

6.3 Shortening
gymnasium
dormitory
handkerchief
gasoline
kilogram
influenza
business
parachute
refrigerator
taxicab
gym
dorm
hanky
Gas
kilo
flu
biz
chute
fridge
taxi or cab

Give clippings for the following words
6.3 Shortening
2) Initialisms
IOC=International Olympic Committee
BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation
ISBN=International Standard Book Number
CAD=computer assisted design
cm=centimeter
TB=tuberculosis

6.3 Shortening
CPU
DIY
CEO
IT
AI
SOS
IDD
GMT
VIP
P.S.
a.m.
p.m.
central processing unit
Do it yourself
Chief Executive Officer
Information technology
artificial intelligence
Save our ship
international direct dial
Greenwich Mean Time
very important person
postscript
ante meridiem
post meridiem

Write out in full the following initialisms
6.3 Shortening
3) Acronyms
Basic=Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction
TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language
UNESCO=the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

6.3 Shortening
Tofel
ROM
NATO
FIFA
Aids
radar

Test of English as a foreign language
read only memory
The North Atlantic Treaty organization
Federation Internationale de Football
Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome
Radio detecting and ranging
Write out in full the following acronyms
6.4 Analogy
The definition of analogy
The process by which words or phrases are
created or re-formed according to the existing
patterns in the language

6.4 Analogy
Examples
Marathon-----telethon, talkathon
blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers, gray-collar
workers, pink-collar workers, gold-collar workers
environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution, noise
pollution, cultural pollution, graffiti pollution
First Family-----First Lady, First Dog
Landscape-----moonscape, marscape
Birds eye------fish-eye, worms-eye, cats-eye

Chapter 7 Motivation
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
7.3 Morphological motivation
7.4 Semantic motivation
7.5 Logical motivation
7.6 Motivation and Culture
Meaning (Concept)
Word
Triangle of significance
Form
Referent .
The debate over the connection
between sound and meaning
The naturalists maintain there is a
natural/intrinsic connection between sound and
meaning.
The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold
that the relations between sound and meaning
are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a
word is a kind of linguistic social contract.
Conventionality
Whats in a name? That we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
-----Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet
Words have no meaning, people have meaning
for them.
------ Eric Partridge

Conventionality
---Chinese
---Japanese
arbre---French
baun---Germany
Motivation
Motivation deals with the connection between
name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It
is the relationship between the word structure
and its meaning.

Non-motivated and motivated
From the point of view of motivation, the great
majority of English words are nonmotivated,
since they are conventional, arbitrary symbols.
However, there is a small group of words that
can be described as motivated, that is, a direct or
somewhat connection between the symbol and
its sense can be readily observed.

Examples of motivation
The pigeon coos.
airmail, miniskirt, hopeless
a coat of paint
He has a stony heart.
The question was like the Sphinxs riddle to them.

Types of motivation
Onomatopoeic motivation
Morphological motivation
Semantic motivation
Logical motivation
Motivation and Culture
Onomatopoeic motivation means
defining the principle of motivation by sound.
Words motivated phonetically are called
onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation
suggests the meaning. They show a close
connection between sound and sense.
Primary onomatopoeia
Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of
sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an
echo to the sense.

Primary onomatopoeia

cats mew, purr lions roar
eagles scream mice squeak
frogs croak Snakes hiss
hens cluck wolves howl
(For more examples, see page 60-61)
Secondary onomatopoeia
Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain
sounds and sound-sequences are associated
with certain senses. In other words, certain
sounds evoke symbolic connotations,
suggesting particular senses.

Secondary onomatopoeia
-are suggests big light or noise
Blare, flare, glare, stare
-ump suggests protuberance
Plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, dump, mump
sk- suggests touching or moving on the surface
Skate, skim, skin, ski, sketch, skid
h- suggests moving with great speed, force, or violence
Heavy, haste, hurry, hit, hurl, hammer, hinder
But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic
words constitute only a small part of the
vocabulary; some onomatopoeic words are not
completely motivated phonetically and are
conventional to quite a large extent. If you throw
a stone into water, the sound you hear is by no
means the same as when you say splash. Flies
do not exactly make the sound of buzz.

We say the word is morphologically motivated,
for a direct connection can be observed between
the morphemic structure of the word and its
meaning. This is called morphological
motivation(

Derivational words are morphologically motivated. If one
knows the meaning of the affix and the base, then one
can immediately tell the meaning of the word.
Compounds words may be morphologically motivated
too. The meanings of words like good-looking, spaceman,
moonscape, daydream and many others derive from the
combined meaning of the component parts.
One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes, the
component parts of these words are themselves
conventional.
Semantic motivation refers to the
mental association suggested by the conceptual
meaning of a word. It explains the connection
between the literal sense and figurative sense of
the word. Here it is the figurative usage that
provides the semantic motivation.
Examples:
When we speak of a stony heart we are
comparing the heart with a stone.
when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing
the tables leg with one of the lower limbs of a
human being.

Types of semantic motivation
Metaphor
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Analogy
Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech
containing an implied comparison, in which a
word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of
one thing is applied to another. It is a simile
without like or as.

Metaphor
The world is a stage.
A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause.
The city is a jungle where no body is safe after
the dark.
Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed,
and some few to be chewed and digested.
----- Bacon Of Studies

Metonymy
Metonymy is the device in which we
name something by one of its attributes. The
substitution of the name of one thing for that of
another with which it is closely associated.
Metonymy
Metonymy usually includes several classes:
container for its content, a thing closely
associated for another, tool for the doer or deed,
writer for his works, the concrete for the abstract
and so on.

Metonymy
He is too fond of bottles.
The hall applauded.
I have never read Li Bai.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
He succeeded to the crown.
Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White
House;Beijing
Synecdoche
Synecdochemeans using a part for a
whole, an individual for a class, a material for a
thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.

Synecdoche
There are about 500 hands working in this
factory.
This newspaperand probably the countrywill
wait its time and see how the new faces perform
before judging them.
The birds sing to welcome the smiling year.
To earn ones bread
He is a clever creature .
Analogy
Analogyis a process whereby words or
phrases are created in imitation of existing
patterns in the language. The motivation is that
the meaning or sense of the created word shares
similarity with the existing language pattern.
Analogy
Color: black list---white list, gray list; blue-color workers-
--white-collar workers, gray-collar workers, pink-collar
workers, and gold-collar workers
Number: the First World---the Second World, the Third
world, the Fourth World
Place and space: landscape---moonscape, marscape;
sunrise---earthrise; spaceman---earthman, moonman
Analogy
Similarity: missile gap---generation gap,
development gap, income gap, credibility gap
Antonym: hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby
bust; nightmare---daymare; cold-war---hot war;
high-rise---low-rise

Logical motivationdeals with the
problem of defining a concept by means of logic.
It means, first, identify the concept of a genus
, second, to identify the attributes
distinguishing one speciesfrom other
similar species in the same genus.

Compounds combining species and genus
Crisis---economical crisis, financial crisis,
spiritual crisis, ecological crisis, credit crisis,
military crisis, identity crisis
Relations---international relations, business
relations, diplomatic relations, bilateral relations

Clipped compounds by shortening species or genus
drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug
He is addicted to drugs
pill from birth control pill
The Hill from the Capitol Hill
Nobel from Nobel Prize
Relation
Motivation is closely related to culture and
history. In English, some words are endowed
with rich cultural connotations. Words that
epitomize cultural history are call culturally-
bound words or allusive words. These words
originated from religion, mythology, history and
literature.

forbidden fruit: sth. alluring but prohibited
because of terrible consequences
Odyssey: a long, adventurous journey
the last straw: the last thing that leads one to a
final loss of patience, temper, trust, or hope
Waterloo: a final, crushing defeat,eg. meet one's
Waterloo
Uncle Tom: a person who compromises and
conforms

Prometheus unbound:an overwhelming power
Solomon: a wise man
Sphinx: A puzzling or mysterious person or thing.
Eg. a Sphinxs riddle: a puzzling, mysterious
question, problem.

Judas: One who betrays another under the guise of
friendship. Judas kiss: a malicious intention under
the guise of intimacy and friendship
pound of flesh: legal but unreasonable demand or
claim
white elephant: A rare, expensive possession that is
a financial burden to maintain, no longer wanted
The naked truth was fully revealed through a
newspaper.
-----He told us about his adventures last night. Its a
pity you were not there.
-----Arabian Nights only. Dont believe him.
Like an Apollo, he comes and arrests everyones
attention in the hall.
No cross, no crown
To quest for full citizenship is really an Odyssey for
Afro-Americans.

A non-native learner should have
relevant background knowledge
about the target languages history,
geography, customs, habits,
knowledge about the Bible and
Christianity.
National psychology
To take French leave
Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage;
Dutch comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk
Dutch; Im a Dutchman if .
Religious Philosophy
As poor as a church-mouse
As patient as Job
As wise as Solomon


as strong as a horse
as dump as an oyster;as
silent as the grave; as close
as wax
spring up like a mushroom
like a cat on hot bricks
Its no use crying over spilt
milk.
As timid as a rabbit

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