Computer Networks

Network Architecture
Open Systems Interconnection

Reference Model
Objectives
Identify organizations that set standards for
networking
Describe the purpose of the OSI Model and
each of its layers
Explain specific functions belonging to each
OSI Model layer
Objectives (continued)
Understand how two network nodes
communicate through the OSI model
Discuss the structure and purpose of data
packets and frames
Describe the two types of addressing
covered by the OSI Model
Networking Standards
Organizations
Standards: documented agreements containing
technical specifications or other precise criteria
stipulating how particular products or services
should be designed or performed
Define minimum acceptable performance
Many different organizations have evolved to
oversee computer industrys standards
Ensures the interconnectivity and compatibility of
the device
Help in maintaining market competitiveness and
guarantees interoperability
ANSI
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Composed of more than a thousand representatives
from industry and government
Represents United States in setting international
standards
ANSI standards documents available:
ANSIs Web site (www.ansi.org)
At university or public libraries
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
International society composed of engineering
professionals
Goals are to promote development and education in
electrical engineering and computer science
IEEE technical papers and standards are highly
respected in the networking profession
Can purchase IEEE documents online from IEEEs
Web site (www.ieee.org)
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
Collection of organization standards representing
146 countries
Goal is to establish international technological
standards to facilitate global exchange of
information and barrier-free trade
Fewer than 300 of ISOs more than 14,250 standards
apply to computer-related products and functions

10
Why Architecture?

Offer interoperability across diverse networks
Allow for easier application coding
Allow providers to compete
Facilitate innovation
Copyright by Jorg
Liebeherr 98, 99
Network Architecture

A Network Architecture is a
structured set of protocols that
implement the exchange of
information between computers
Copyright by Jorg
Liebeherr 98, 99
Protocol Architectures
There are only few protocol
architectures that are relevant
today:
OSI Reference Model
TCP/IP Protocols Suite
ATM Protocol Stack
OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model:
divides network communications into seven
layers:
Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application
Protocols perform services unique to layer
Protocols interact with protocols in layers
directly above and below
Protocol: set of instructions to perform a
function or group of functions
Written by a programmer
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 14
Figure 2.3 The OSI model
Figure 2.4 OSI layers
The OSI Model (continued)
Theoretical representation of what happens between
two nodes communicating on a network
Model for understanding and designing a network
architecture
Does not prescribe type of hardware or software that
should support each layer
Does not describe how software programs interact
with other software programs or how software
programs interact with humans
Provides standards for communication between
systems
Each layer communicates with same layer from one
computer to another
The OSI Model (continued)
Figure 2-1: Flow of data through the OSI Model
Tip to remember
All People Seem To Need Data Processing.
Please Do Not Tell Secret Passwords
Anytime.
Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.

Application layer
Responsible for accessing the network by user. It provides user
interfaces and other supporting services such as email, remote file
access, file transfer, sharing database, message handling and
directory services.
Function of application layer
1. Network virtual terminal
It is a software version of physical terminal that allows a user to log
on to a remote host
2. File transfer, Access and Management(FTAM)
allows user to access files in remote hosts, to retrieve files and to
manage files in remote computer.
3. Mail services
email forwarding, storage under this category
4. Directory services: include access for global information and
distributed database.
Application Layer (7)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): formats
and sends requests from clients browser to
server
Also formats and sends Web servers response back
to clients browser
Application program interface (API): set of
routines that make up part of a software
application
Presentation Layer (6)
Deals with syntax and semantics of
information being exchanged
Protocols accept Application layer data and
format it
So that one type of application and host can
understand data from another type of application and
host
e.g., translation and conversion between graphics
file types
Manages data encryption and decryption

Presentation layer(contd..)
Responsible:

1.Translation
Different computers use different encoding systems. so this layer
maintains interoperability between the two encoding systems

2. Encryption
encryption is transforming sender information to other form to ensure
privacy while transmission.Decrytion is reverse process.

3. Compression
compression is a technique of reducing number of bits required to
represent the data
Session Layer (5)
Protocols coordinate and maintain
communications between two network nodes
Establish and maintain communications link for
duration of session
Keep communication secure
Synchronize dialogue between two nodes
Network dialog controllerit establishes and synchronizes the
interaction b/w communication system
Determine if communications have been cut off
Determine where to restart transmission
Terminate communications
Session Layer (continued)
Sets terms of communication
Decides which node will communicate first
Decides how long a node can communicate
Monitors identification of session
participants
Ensures that only authorized nodes have access
Responsibities:
1. Dialog control
communication between two processes take place in either half
duplex or full duplexmode.Manages dialog control for this
communication
2. synchronization: layer adds synchronization points into stream of
data
Transport Layer (4)
Responsible for delivery of message from one process to
another
Protocols accept data from Session layer and manage end-to-
end delivery of data
Ensure data transferred reliably, in correct sequence, and
without errors
Protocols also handle flow control as well as error control
Gauging appropriate rate of transmission based on how fast
recipient can accept data
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Takes care of reliably
transmitting HTTP requests from client to server and vice versa
Transport Layer (continued)
Connection-oriented protocols: ensure that
data arrives exactly as it was sent
Establish connection before transmitting data
TCP is connection-oriented
Clients TCP protocol first sends synchronization
(SYN) packet request to server
Server responds with synchronization-
acknowledgment (SYN-ACK) packet
Client responds with own acknowledgment (ACK)
Acknowledgments also used to ensure that data was properly
delivered
For every data unit sent, connection-oriented protocol expects
acknowledgment from recipient
If no acknowledgment, data retransmitted
Connection-oriented protocols use a checksum
Unique character string allowing receiving node to determine if
arriving data unit exactly matches data unit sent by source

Connectionless protocols do not establish
connection before transmitting
No effort to ensure data delivered error-free
Transport layer protocols break large data
units received from Session layer into
smaller segments (segmentation)

Transport Layer
Reassembly: process of reconstructing
segmented data units
Sequencing: method of identifying segments
that belong to same group of subdivided
data
Indicates where unit of data begins
Indicates order in which groups of data were issued
Transport layer protocols of two nodes must
synchronize timing and agree on starting point for the
transmission
Network layer
Responsible for the delivery of packets from
the source to destination.
Functions :
1. Logical addressing
Data link layer implements physical addressing , when packet
passes network boundary, an addressing system is needed to
differentiate source and destination. The network layer adds a
header to the packet of upper layer includes the logical addresses of
header and receiver.

2. Routing
Route or switch the packets to its final destination in an
internetwork
Network Layer (continued)
Figure 2-2: Segmentation and Reassembly

Network Layer Devices
Routers
Brouters
Layer 3 Switches
Network Layer
Primary functions of protocols:
Translate network addresses into physical
counterparts
Decide how to route data from sender to receiver
Each node has two types of addresses:
Network address: follows hierarchical addressing
scheme
Can be assigned through OS software
Network layer addresses, logical addresses, or
virtual addresses
Physical address
Network Layer (continued)
Network layer protocols accept Transport
layer segments and add logical addressing
information in network header
Network layer handles routing
Determining best network path
Fragmentation: Network layer protocol
subdivides segments it receives from
Transport layer into smaller packets
Data Link Layer
Protocols divide received data into distinct
frames
Can then be transmitted by Physical layer
Frame: structured package for moving data
Raw data
payload
Senders and receivers network addresses
Error checking and control information
Data Link Layer (continued)
Error checking accomplished by 4-byte
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field
Ensures data at destination exactly matches data
issued from source
When source node transmits data, performs Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) to get FCS
Destination nodes Data Link layer services
unscramble FCS via same CRC algorithm
Data Link layer divided into two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control
Media Access Control
Figure 2-5: The Data Link layer and its sublayers
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer:
Provides interface to Network layer protocols
Manages flow control
Issues requests for transmission for data that has
suffered errors
Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer:
Manages access to physical layer
Appends destination computers physical address
onto data frame (MAC address, Data Link layer
address, or hardware address)
Data Link Layer Concepts
Frame
The Hardware (MAC) Address
Logical Topology
Data Link Layer Devices
Bridges
Switches
NIC
Switchs/Hubs
Figure 2-6: A NICs MAC address
MAC addresses contain two parts:
Block ID: six-character sequence unique to vendor
Device ID: six-character sequence based on NICs
model and manufacture date

Physical Layer
Protocols accept frames from Data Link layer
and generate voltage to transmit signals
When receiving data, protocols detect
voltage and accept signals
Protocols also set data transmission rate and
monitor data error rates
Cannot perform error correction
NICs operate at both Physical layer and Data
Link layer
Network administrators mostly concerned
with bottom four layers of OSI Model
Physical Layer Devices
NIC
Transceivers
Repeaters
Hubs
MAUs
Repeaters
Hubs
Figure 2.6 Summary of OSI Layers
TCP/IP Model
A highly standardized protocol used widely
on the Internet
Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET)
Standards area available in the form of RFC
documents
Request For Comments (RFC)
Standards are overseen by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF)
Layers of TCP/IP Reference
Model
There are four layers of the TCP/IP reference
model (DARPA model as named by the US
Government Agency)
The ISO-OSI reference model is composed of seven
layers
Note that the ISO/OSI model is more widely
used and accepted but the TCP/IP model is
easy to comprehend
Copyright by Jorg
Liebeherr 98, 99
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The TCP/IP protocol
suite was first defined in
1974
The TCP/IP protocol
suite is the protocol
architecture of the
Internet
The TCP/IP suite has
four layers:
Application, Transport,
Internet, and Network
Interface Layer
Application
Layer
Transport
Layer
Internet
Network
Interface
telnet, ftp, email
TCP, UDP
IP, ICMP, IGMP
Device Drivers
Copyright by Jorg
Liebeherr 98, 99
Comparison of OSI Model and
TCP/IP Suite
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Application
Transport
Internetwork
Network
Access
Physical
OSI TCP/IP
OSI and TCP/IP Protocol Stack
OSI Model TCP/IP Hierarchy Protocols
7
th
Application Layer
6
th
Presentation Layer
5
th
Session Layer
4
th
Transport Layer
3
rd
Network Layer
2
nd
Link Layer
1
st
Physical Layer
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Link Layer
Link Layer : includes device driver and network interface card
Network Layer : handles the movement of packets, i.e. Routing
Transport Layer : provides a reliable flow of data between two hosts
Application Layer : handles the details of the particular application
Source: TCP/IP White Paper by Microsoft
TCP/IP Layers
Network interface layer
Internet layer
Host-to-host transport layer
Application layer

Network Interface Layer
Responsible for sending and receiving
TCP/IP packets on the network medium
(physical/Data Link)
Exchange of data between end system and
network
Applicable LAN technologies
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI etc.
Applicable WAN technologies
X.25 (old), Frame Relay, ATM etc.
Destination address provision
Internet Layer (IP)
Systems may be attached to different
networks
Routing functions across multiple networks
Implemented in end systems and routers

Core Internet Layer Protocols
IP
A connectionless unreliable protocol that is part of the
TCP/IP protocol suite
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
Diagnostics and error reporting
(IGMP) Internet Group Management Protocol
Management of group multicast

Transport Layer (TCP)
Reliable delivery of data
Ordering of delivery
Transport Layer
Sequencing and transmission of packets
Acknowledgment of receipts
Recovery of packets
Flow control
In essence, it engages in host-to-host
transportation of data packets and the
delivery of them to the application layer
Core Protocols of the
Transport Layer
TCP
(Transmission
Control Protocol)
UDP (User
Datagram Protocol)
Transport Layer
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
One-to-one and connection-oriented reliable
protocol
Used in the accurate transmission of large
amount of data
Slower compared to UDP because of
additional error checking being performed
UDP
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
One-to-one or one-to-many,connectionless and
unreliable protocol
Used for the transmission of small amount of data
Accuracy is not of prime concern
The overhead of establishing a TCP connection is not warranted
Used in video and audio casting
Multicasting
Broadcasting
Also used for multimedia transmission
Faster compared to TCP
Application Layer
Support for user applications
e.g. http, SMTP
Provides applications with the ability to
access the services of the other layers
New protocols and services are always being
developed in this category
Some Core Protocols
HTTP
FTP
Telnet
SMTP
POP3
IMAP
SNMP etc.
Packet Encapsulation
The data is sent down the protocol stack
Each layer adds to the data by prepending headers
22Bytes 20Bytes 20Bytes 4Bytes
64 to 1500 Bytes
The Computer Continuum 7-73
Communication Basics
of Networks
Types of connections of computers into
networks: Physical versus Wireless
connections
The first type: The Physical Connection.
Physically connect computers together.
Use of wires or optical cables.
The connections are called network links.
Three most common physical links:
Twisted pair
Coaxial cable
Fiber-optic cable
of Networks
Twisted pair
Two wires twisted together.
Makes them less susceptible to acting like
an antenna and picking up radio frequency
information or appliance noise.
Telephone company uses twisted-pair copper
wires to link telephones.

of Networks
Coaxial cable
Also two wires:
One of the wires is woven of fine strands of
copper forming a tube.
The wire mesh surrounds a solid copper
wire that runs down the center.
Space between has a non-conducting
material.
Makes them more impervious to outside
noise.

of Networks
Fiber-optic cable
Light is
electromagnetic.
Can transmit more
information down a
single strand.
It can send a
wider set of
frequencies.
Each cable can send
several thousand
phone conversations
or computer
communications.

of Networks
Second type of connections of computers
into networks: Wireless connections
The link is made using electromagnetic energy that
goes through space instead of along wires or cables.
Three types of wireless communications commonly
used in networking:
Infrared
Radio frequency
Microwave

of Networks
Infrared
Commonly used in TV and VCR remote
controls.
Use infrared frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation that behave much like visible light.
Must be in the line of sight.
Often used to connect
keyboards, mice,
and printers.

of Networks
Radio frequency
Uses radio frequencies.
Function even
though line of sight
is interrupted.
Not commonly used
because of the possible
interference from other
sources of
electromagnetic
radiation such as old
electric drills and
furnace motors.

The Computer Continuum
7-80
of Networks
Microwave
Often used to
communicate with
distant locations.
Must be line of sight.
Satellite
communications use
microwaves.

of Networks
Properties of Transmission
Five basic properties of both the physical and wireless
links:
1. Type of signal communicated (analog or digital).
2. The speed at which the signal is transmitted (how
fast the data travels).
3. The type of data movement allowed on the channel
(one-way, two-way taking turns, two-way
simultaneously).
4. The method used to transport the data
(asynchronous or synchronous transmission).
5. Single channel (baseband) and multichannel
(broadband) transmission.
of Networks
1. Type of signal communicated (analog or
digital).
Analog: Those signals that vary with smooth
continuous changes.
A continuously changing signal similar to that
found on the speaker wires of a high-fidelity stereo
system.
Digital: Those signals that vary in steps or jumps
from value to value. They are usually in the form of
pulses of electrical energy (represent 0s or 1s).

of Networks
2. The speed at which the signal is transmitted
(how fast the data travels).
In digital systems: Speed is measured in...
Bits per second (bps).
The number of bits (0s and 1s) that travel down the
channel per second.
Baud rate
The number of bits that travel down the channel in a
given interval.
The number is given in signal changes per second, not
necessarily bits per second.

7-84
of Networks
MODEM - MOdulator
DEModulator

Outgoing: Converts binary
data from computer (digital)
into telephone compatible
signals (analog).
Incoming: Converts
telephone signal (analog)
into binary data for the
computer (digital).
Can be an external or
internal device (usually a
card).

of Networks
Speed of Signal: Sample bps and baud rate
speeds.

300 bps (=300 baud) Painfully slow to the college-level reader
1200 bps (=1200 baud) Good reader can keep up
2400 bps (=2400 baud) A speed reader would get the general idea
9600 bps (=9600 baud) Impossible to read
14.4 K bps (not measured in baud) 14,400 bps - 10 to 20 sec. wait for graphics
28.8 K bps Minimum desired for WWW
(5 to 10 sec. wait for graphics)
56 K bps Efficient speed for WWW.

These speeds are restricted to the maximum speed of the modem at the
other end of the connection.
Software Architecture
of Networks
Types of nodes important to networks.

Hub A device that repeats or broadcasts the network stream of information to
individual nodes ( usually personal computers)

Switch A device that receives packets from its input link, and then sorts them and
transmits them over the proper link that connects to the node addressed.

Bridge A link between two networks that have identical rules of communication.

Gateway A link between two different networks that have different rules of
communication.

Router A node that sends network packets in one of many possible directions to
get them to their destination.
87
Channel access on links
Channel access method allows several
terminals connected to the same multi point
trans media to transmit over it and to share it
capacity
If no arbitration, several stations/users may
transmit at the same time: COLLISIONS!
How to allocate single shared, broadcast
channel among several stations/users.

88
Multiplexing
Sharing a link/channel among multiple source-
destination pairs.
Example: high-capacity long-distance trunks (fiber,
microwave links) carry multiple connections at the
same time.
Channel access scheme is also based on a multiple
access protocol and control mechanism

.
.
.
89
Multiplexing Techniques
3 basic types:
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDMA).
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDMA).

Code Time-Division Multiplexing (CDMA).
Static
Dynamic
90
FDMA

Time
Frequency
1 2 N
Available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands

Each station is allocated to send its data

In this method when any one frequency level is kept
idle and another is used frequently leads ti inefficiency
91
FDM
Simple.

But:
What if number of users is large?
What if number of users changes over time?
What if traffic is bursty?
92
TDM

Time
Frequency
1
2
N
Stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time

Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can
send data

Buteach station needs to know the beginning of its slot
and the location of its slot
93
TDM (Contd)
Time divided into time slots.
One or more slots assigned to a data source.

But, also inefficient
1 2 N ...
1 2 ...
N
frame
Time
U
1
U
2
... U
N
94
Dynamic Multiplexing
Dynamic allocation.
In particular, statistical TDM.
Dynamically allocates time slots on
demand.
Increased channel utilization.
Examples CDMA,round robin MAC,
Scheduled MAC
Code division multiple access
CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel
occupies the entire bandwidth of the link
It differs from TDMA because all stations can send
data at the same time without timesharing
CDMA simply means communication with different
codes
It is based on coding theory, each station is
assigned a code, which is a sequence of numbers
called chips and chips will be added with original
data and it can be transmitted thro same medium.
96
Multiple Access Protocols
Centralized approaches:
Controller grants access to medium.
Simple, greater control: priorities, QoS.
But, single point of failure and performance
bottleneck.
Decentralized schemes:
All stations collectively run MAC to decide when to
transmit.

97
Round-Robin MAC
Each station is allowed to transmit; station may
decline or transmit (bounded by some maximum
transmit time).
Centralized (e.g., polling) or distributed (e.g.,
token ring) control of who is next to transmit.
Efficient when many stations have data to
transmit over extended period (stream).
98
Scheduled-Access MAC
Time divided into slots.
Station reserves slots in the future.
Multiple slots for extended transmissions.
Suited to stream traffic.
Lecture 4: 9-6-01 99
Framing
Techniques
1. Bye oriented protocols
(BISYNC,PPP,DDCMP)

2. Bit oriented protocols(HDLC)

3. Clock based Framing(SoNET)

Byte oriented protocols
Collection of bytes rather than collection of bits
Sentinel approach
Beginning of a frame is denoted by sending a SYN
character
Data portion contained between STX and ETX

CRC is used to detect transmission error.

SYN SYN SOH HEADER STX BODY ETX CRC
Lecture 4: 9-6-01 101
BISYNC Framing
Escaping the ETX character by preceding it
with a DLE character whenever it appears in
the body
Byte stuffing
Special start of frame byte (e.g. 0xFF)
Special escape byte value (e.g. 0xFE)
Values actually in text are replaced (e.g. 0xFF by
0xFEFF and 0xFE by 0xFEFE)
Worst case can double the size of frame
PPP
Flag Address Control Protocol Payload Checksum flag
Flag Field has 01111110 as starting sequence
Address and control fields usually contain
default values
Protocol filed is used for demultiplexing
Payload size can be negotiated
Negotiation conducted by a protocol LCP(Link
control protocol)
LCP sends control messages encapsulated in
PPP frames
DDCMP
Syn Syn Class Count Header Body Crc
No of bytes contained in a frame can be included as a
field in header

Count field specifies how many bytes are contained in
the frame body

Sometimes count field will be corrupted during
transmission, receiver accumulate many bytes as count
filed indicates---- framing error

Receiver then wait until it sees the next SYN character
Bit oriented protocols(HDLC)
Beginning
sequences
Header Body CRC Ending
sequences
HDLC has both beginning and end of a frame with bit
sequence 01111110

Sequence may be appear anywhere in the body of the
frame, it can be avoided by bit stuffing

On the sending side, Five consecutive 1s have been
transmitted from the body of the message, the sender
inserts a 0 before transmitting next bit

On the receiving side, five consecutive 1s arrived, so
receiver makes its decision based on the next bit it sees
HDLC
If next bit is 0, it must have been stuffed . So
receiver removes it
Suppose next bit is 1 then
either end of frame marker or error
If it is 0 (i.e last eight bits it has looked at are
01111110) then it end of frame marker
If it is 1 (i.e the last eight bits it has looked at
are 01111111) then there must have been an
error so whole frame may be discarded..

Clock based framing (SONET)
Synchronous optical network is used for long
distance transmission of data over optical network

Supports multiplexing of several low speed links
into one high speed links

SONET
It is arranged as nine rows of 90 bytes each,
and the first 3 bytes of each row are
overhead, with the rest being available for
data.
The first 2 bytes of the frame contain a
special bit pattern, and it is these bytes that
enable the receiver to determine where the
frame starts.
The receiver looks for the special bit pattern
consistently, once in every 810 bytes, since
each frame is 9 x 90 = 810 bytes long.

Error detection and
Correction
Types of errors
1. single bit error: only one bit of data unit
changing from 0 to 1 and vice versa

.
Error detection and
correction
Burst Error
The term Burst Error means that two or more
bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0
or from 0 to 1
Error detection and
correction
Redundancy
One method is to send every data twice, so that receiver checks every
bit of two copies and detect error.
Drawbacks
Sends n-redundant bits for n-bit message.
Many errors are undetected if both the copies are corrupted.
Instead of adding entire data, some bits are appended to each unit..
These bits are called error detecting codes.
Three error detecting techniques are:
Parity check
Check sum algorithm
Cyclic Redundancy Check

Error detection and
correction
Parity Check
simplest form of error detection is to
append a single bit .

Simple parity check
Only one redundant bit, called parity bit is added to every data
unit so that the total number of 1s in unit become even (or odd)
Drawbacks:
Receiver can detect an error but it can not specify which bit
is error
Detect only single bit error

Error detection and
correction
Two Dimensional Parity
It is based on simple parity
Two dimensional parity check and block is
organized in rows and columnsthen parity of each
data unit is calculated
Then calculate parity bit of each column, write
column parity also
Then attach 8 parity bit original data and send to
receiver
Drawback
if two bits in one data unit are changed and two bits in exactly at same
position in another data unit is changed, so checker cant detect an
error
Error detection and
correction
Check sum algorithm
All the words are added and then transmit the result of sum
called checksum with the data
Receiver performs the same calculation on the received data
and compares the result with the received checksum
If any corruption in transmitted data, then results will not
match. so error occurred at receiver
Instead of sending the checksum as such, ones complement
of that sum will be send to receiver. If it as zero ,it will be
correct one
If number has more than n bits, then extra leftmost bits need to
be added to the n rightmost bits
Data can be divided into 16 bit word and checksum is initialized
to zero
Lecture 4: 9-6-01 114
Internet Checksum
Sender
Treat segment contents
as sequence of 16-bit
integers
Checksum: addition
(1s complement sum)
of segment contents
Sender puts checksum
value into checksum
field in header
Receiver
Compute checksum of
received segment
Check if computed
checksum equals
checksum field value:
NO - error detected
YES - no error
detected. But maybe
errors nonethless?
Goal: detect errors (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted segment
Lecture 4: 9-6-01 115
Error Detection Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC)
A very popular error detecting code implemented in many data
transmission schemes is the cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
code.
CRC is an international standard approach to error detection. It
protects the data with a checksum or cyclic redundancy check
CRC was first developed by the CCITT (Committee Consultative
International Telegraphic Telephonic) now called ITU T
(International Telecommunications Union)
CRC is based on binary division. In CRC a sequence of
redundant bits, called the CRC or the CRC remainder is
appended to the end of a data stream. The resulting data
becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary
number.
At its destination, the incoming data is divided by the same
number

Error Detection Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC)
Polynomial Generator is used to calculate a
binary equivalent. Present powers are
identified as 1 and a absent powers as 0.
CRC generator (divisor) is usually
represented not as a string of 1s and 0s but
as an algebraic polynomial
CRC Generator uses modulo-2 division

Lecture 4: 9-6-01 117
CRC Example
ERROR CORRECTION
Handled in two ways
1.First one, when an error is discovered, the
receiver can have the sender retransmit the
entire data unit.
2.In the other, a receiver can use an error
correcting code, which automatically
corrects certain errors.
Types of error correction:
1. Single bit error correction
2. Burst bit error correction

Single Bit Error Correction

To correct a single bit error in an ASCII character, the
error correction code must determine which of the seven
bits has changed.
Determine eight different states: no error, error in
position 1, error in position 2, ..error in position 7.
Looks like a three bit redundancy code. because three
bits can show eight different states.
But what if an error occurs in the redundancy bits?
Seven bits of data and three bits of redundancy bits equal 10 bits.
So three bits are not adequate..
To calculate the number of redundancy bits (r) required
to correct a given number of data bits (m) find a
relationship between m and r.

If the total number of bits in a transmittable unit is m+r
then r must be able to indicate at least m+r+1 different
state. Of these, one state means no error and m+r states
indicate the location of an error in each of the m+r
positions.

So m+r+1 state must be discoverable by r bits. And r
bits can indicate 2r different states. Therefore, 2r must
be equal to or greater than m+r+1;
2r >=m+r+1

NUMBER OF DATA BITS (M)

NUMBER OF REDUNDANCY
BITS (R)
TOTAL BITS (M+R)
1 2 3
2 3 5
3 3 6
4 3 7
5 4 9
6 4 10
7 4 11
Hamming code
The hamming code can be applied to data
units of any length and uses the relationship
between data and redundancy bits
R.W hamming provides a practical solution
for error correction..
It is extension of simple method that can be
used to detect and correct the larger set of
errors..
Hamming code
Seven bit ASCII code requires four
redundancy bits that can be added to the end
of the data
These redundancy bits are placed in
positions 1, 2,4,and 8, so this bits as r1,r2,r3
and r4..

Combination used to calculate each of the
four r values for seven bit data sequence..
D D D R D D D R D R R
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Hamming code
r1 bit is calculated using all bits positions
whose binary value include a 1 in the
rightmost position.
r2 is calculated using all bit position with a 1
in the second position and so on.
r1: bits 1,3,5,7,9,11
r2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11
r3: bits 4,5,6,7
r4: bits 8,9,10,11
Hamming code
Calculating r values..
Place each bit of the original character in its
appropriate position in the 11 bit unit
Calculate the even parties for the various bit
combination
Parity value for each combination is the
value of the corresponding r bit

Hamming code
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Hamming code
At the receiver side
Receiver takes the transmission and recalculates four
new r values using the same set of bits used by the
sender plus the relevant parity (r) bit for each set. Then it
assembles the new parity values into a binary number in
order of r position (r8, r4, r2, r1).
This step gives us the binary number which is the
precise location of the bit in error
Once the bit is identified, the receiver can reverse its
value and correct the error
Hamming code
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

Burst Bit Error Correction

Hamming code can be designed to correct
burst errors of certain length
Number of redundancy bits required to make
these corrections..
To correct double bit errors, the two bits can
be a combination of any two bits in the entire
sequence.
Three bit correction means any three bits in
the entire sequence and so on
FUNCTIONS OF DATA LINK
LAYER
Data link layer Functions
1. Line discipline

2. Flow control

3. Error control

4. Framing

LINE DISCIPLINE

Line discipline coordinates the link system.

Line discipline can serve in two ways

1. Enquiry / acknowledgement (ENQ / ACK)

2. Poll / select (POLL / SELECT)

ENQ / ACK
Poll
Work with topologies where one device is
designated as primary and the other devices
are secondary
Primary device controls the linkSecondary
devices follow its instructions..
Primary asks the secondary if they have
anything to send- Polling
Primary tells the target secondary to get
ready to receive - Selecting.
POLL
Used by the primary device to solicit
transmission from the secondary devices.
Secondary are not allowed to transmit data
unless asked by the primary device.
When the primary ready to receive data, it
must ask (poll) each device in turn if it has
anything to send.
If the secondary have data to transmit it sends
the data frame otherwise sends a negative
acknowledgment (NAK).
Poll
Primary then polls the next secondary.
When the response is positive (a data frame),
the primary reads the frame and returns an
acknowledgment (ACK).
Terminate the transmission: either the
secondary sends all data, finishing with an
EOT frame, or the primary says timers up.
Then the primary cal polls the remaining
devices.
Poll
SELECT

FLOW CONTROL

Set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data
flow between sending and receiving stations.
Most common retransmission technique: ARQ
ARQ has three cases
Demaged frames
Lost frames
Lost acknowledgement
Function:
Transmission of frames
Error checking at receiver
Acknowledgement
1. Negative if error detected(NAK)
2. Positive if No error detected(ACK)
Automatic Repeat Request
ARQ categorized in two types

ARQ- Stop and wait ARQ and Sliding window ARQ

Further Sliding window ARQ divided into two types

1. Go-Back-N

2. Selective repeat
STOP AND WAIT
sender waits for acknowledgment after every
frame it sends. Only after an acknowledgment
has been received, then the sender sends the
next frame.
Sliding Window
Sender can transmit several frames before needing
an acknowledgment.
Receiver acknowledges only some of the frames,
using a single ACK to confirm the receipt of multiple
data frames
SENDER WINDOW
Example: Sliding Windows
ERROR CONTROL

Error control is implemented with the flow
control mechanism.

STOP AND WAIT ARQ
It is a form of stop and wait flow control,
extended to include retransmission of data in
case of lost or damaged frames
DAMAGED FRAME
LOST DATA FRAME
LOST ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
STOP AND WAIT ARQ
Damaged Frame
STOP AND WAIT ARQ
Lost Data Frame
STOP AND WAIT ARQ
LOST ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
SLIDING WINDOW ARQ

Used to send multiple frames per time.
Number of frame is according to the window
size.
Sliding window is an imaginary box which is
reside on both sender and receiver side.
Types
1. go-back-n ARQ
2. selective reject ARQ

GO-BACK-N ARQ

if one frame is lost or damaged, all frames
sent since the last frame acknowledged or
retransmitted.

Demaged Frame
LOST FRAME:
LOST ACK
SELECTIVE REPEAT ARQ

Selective repeat ARQ retransmits only the
damaged or lost frames instead of sending
multiple frames.
Selective transmission increases the
efficiency of transmission and is more
suitable for noisy link.
Receiver should have sorting mechanism.
Damaged Frame
Lost Frame
Lost ACK
of Networks
4. The method used to transport the data.
Two types of data transmission, each requiring a
different modem.
Asynchronous transmission -
Information is sent byte by byte.
Cheaper and more commonly used.
Synchronous transmission -
Data is sent in large blocks rather than in small
pieces.
Preceded by special information, concerning error
detection and block size.
These modems are expensive but very fast.

of Networks
5. Single channel versus multichannel
transmission
Channel - A path of a signal.
Single channel - Capable of only sending/receiving
one signal at a time.
Phone line: Single line = single phone call at a
time.
Multichannel - Capable of more than one channel at
a time.
Fiber-optic cable, microwaves, Satellite
transmissions.

of Networks
How is it possible to measure the capacity of
communications links?
Bandwidth: Digital
Number of bits per second (bps) that can be sent over a link.
The wider the bandwidth, the more diverse kinds of information can
be sent.
Simplest is voice, most sophisticated is moving videos.
Bandwidth: Analog
The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that can
be sent over an analog link (like phone lines).
Measurement is given in hertz (Hz).
For both: The wider the bandwidth, the more information can flow over
the channel.

of Networks
Mbps = megabytes per sec. (millions) Gbps=Gigabytes per sec.
(billions)

Typical cable bandwidths used in local area networks.
Cable: Typical Bandwidth:
Twisted Pair 10 to 100 Mbps
Coaxial Cable 10 to 100 Mbps
Fiber-optic cable 100 to 200 Mbps

The bandwidths of different services offered by a telephone company:
Service: Bandwidth
ISDN 64 Kbps/channel
T1 1.544 Mbps
T3 44.736 Mbps
STS-1 51.840 Mbps
STS-3 155.250 Mbps
STS-12 622.080 Mbps
STS-24 1.244160 Gbps
STS-48 2.488320 Gbps
The Physical Organization
of Networks
Two parts to connect computers to networks
The hardware needed to connect the computer to the
network.
The software needed to control the hardware.
(Software standards will be discussed in the next
section.)

of Networks
Node: The generic name given to all devices
hooked up to a network.
Each node must have a unique address assigned to
them by the network.
Networks are either direct-connected or those that are
not directly linked.
Direct-connected network: Those whose nodes
have direct connections through either physical or
wireless links.
Point-to-point: Simplest version of direct-connected
network. Connecting two computing systems.
Example of point to point: Home to ISP.
Example of a network that is not directly linked:
Internet.
of Networks
The bus network -
A continuous coaxial
cable to which all the
devices are attached.
All nodes can detect all
messages sent along the
bus.
The ring network -
Nodes linked together to
form a circle.
A message sent out from
one node is passed along
to each node in between
until the target node
receives the message.

Linking nodes:
of Networks
The star network -
Each node is linked to a
central node.
All messages are routed
through the central node,
who delivers it to the
proper node.
The tree network -
(hierarchical network)
Looks like an upside-
down tree where end
nodes are linked to
interior nodes that allow
linking through to another
end node.

Linking nodes:
of Networks
The fully connected
network -
All nodes are connected
to all other nodes.

Internetworking -
Connecting together any
number of direct-
connected networks.
The largest: Internet.

Linking nodes:
MAUs in a Token Ring network

Networking Protocols
TCP/IP
IPX/SPX
NetBEUI
AppleTalk
Applying the OSI Model
Table 2-1: Functions of the OSI layers
Communication Between Two
Systems
Figure 2-7: Data transformation through the OSI Model
Frame Specifications
The two major categories of frame types:
Ethernet
Four types of Ethernet frames
Most popular form characterized by unique way in
which devices share a common transmission
channel (described in IEEE 802.3 standard)
Token Ring: relies on direct links between nodes and
a ring topology
Nodes pass around tokens (control frames that
indicate to network when a node is about to
transmit data)
IEEE Networking
Specifications
Apply to connectivity, networking media,
error checking algorithms, encryption,
emerging technologies, and more
Specifications fall under IEEEs Project 802
Effort to standardize physical and logical elements of
a network
Summary
Standards are documented agreements containing
precise criteria that are used as guidelines to ensure
that materials, products, processes, and services
suit their purpose
ISOs OSI Model divides networking architecture into
seven layers
Each OSI layer has its own set of functions and
interacts with the layers directly above and below it
Application layer protocols enable software to
negotiate their formatting, procedural, security, and
synchronization with the network
Summary (continued)
Presentation layer protocols serve as translators
between the application and the network
Session layer protocols coordinate and maintain
links between two devices for the duration of their
communication
Transport layer protocols oversee end-to-end data
delivery
Network layer protocols manage logical addressing
and determine routes based on addressing, patterns
of usage, and availability
Summary (continued)
Data Link layer protocols organize data they
receive from the Network layer into frames
that contain error checking routines and can
then be transmitted by the Physical layer
Physical layer protocols generate and detect
voltage to transmit and receive signals
carrying data over a network medium
Data frames are small blocks of data with
control, addressing, and handling
information attached to them
References
http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_hnh_OSI

Computer Networks

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Open Systems Interconnection

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