ELECTRICAL MACHINE

BMT 3013
CHAPTER 1: SINGLE AND THREE PHASE
TRANSFORMER

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:
Understand the fundamental laws in the dynamic
magnetic systems and their relation to the electrical
machines.

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2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINE
An electrical machine is a device which converts
electrical power (voltages and current) into mechanical
power (torque and rotational speed) and/or vice versa.
Electromechanical energy conversion the process
which an electrical machine deals with the energy
transfer either from mechanical to electrical form or from
electrical to mechanical form.
Electrical motor an electrical machine which converts
an electrical energy into the mechanical energy.
Electric generator an electrical machine which
converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy.


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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINE
(CONT..)
Many electric machines are capable of performing
both as motors and generators;
The capability of a machine performing as one or
the other is often through the action of a magnetic
field, to perform such conversions.
To understand how an electrical machines works,
the key is to understand how the electromagnet
works.
The principles of magnetism play an important role
in the operation of an electrical machines.



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REVISION OF MAGNETISM
Magnetism property by virtue of which a piece of
solid body (natural magnet) attracts iron piece and
piece of some other metals.
Poles two ends of a magnet
The end of magnets which adjusting in the direction
of North is called N pole while other is S pole
Behavior of two magnets which are brought near to
each other is governed by Laws of Magnetism
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Laws of Magnetism
Law 1 : like magnetic poles repel and unlike poles attract
each other
Law 2 : Coulombs Law by Scientist Coulomb
- The force (F) exerted by one pole on the other pole is
1. Directly proportional to the product of the pole strength
2. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them and
3. Dependent on the nature of medium surrounding the
poles


1

2


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REVISION OF MAGNETISM (CONT..)
Thus,

=

1

2


Where

1
and
2
are the pole strength
d is the distance between the two poles
K is constant which depends on the nature of the
surrounding
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REVISION OF MAGNETISM (CONT..)
MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic Field the region around magnet within
which influence of the magnet can be experienced.
The presence of magnetic field is represented by
imaginary lines around magnet which called
magnetic lines of force.
The total number of lines of force existing in a
particular magnetic field magnetic flux
Line of flux have a fixed direction
1.External N-pole to S-pole
2.Internal S-pole to N-pole
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MAGNETIC FIELD (CONT..)
Unlike electric fields (which start on +q and end on q),
magnetic field encircle their current source.
The field weakens as you move away from the wire
Amperes circuital law - the integration path length
is longer
i d H =

}
.
A circular magnetic field
develops around the wire
follows right-hand rules
field is perpendicular to
the wire and that the
field's direction depends
on which direction the
current is flowing in the
wire
MAGNETIC FIELD (CONT..)
Right Hand Thumb Rule
Hold the current carrying conductor in the right hand
such that the thumb is pointing in the direction of current
and parallel to the conductor, then curled fingers point in
the direction of the magnetic field or flux around it.
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MAGNETIC FIELD (CONT..)
o Magnetic field due to circular
conductor
Solenoid an arrangement in
which a long conductor is wound
with number of turns on a core,
close together to for a coil.
The right hand thumb rule : hold
the solenoid in the right hand
such that curled fingers point in
the direction of the current
through the curled conductor,
then the outstretched thumb
along the axis of the solenoid
points to the North pole of
solenoid or points in the direction
of flux lines inside the core.






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12
REVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
The basic idea behind an electromagnet is
extremely simple: a magnetic field around the
conductor can be produced when current flows
through a conductor.
In other word, the magnetic field only exists when
electric current is flowing
By using this simple principle, you can create all
sorts of things, including motors, solenoids,
read/write heads for hard disks and tape drives,
speakers, and so on
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ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023) 13
EXAMPLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
An electromagnet can be made by winding the
conductor into a coil and applying a DC voltage.
The lines of flux, formed by current flow through the
conductor, combine to produce a larger and stronger
magnetic field.
The center of the coil is known as the core. In this
simple electromagnet the core is air.

ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023) 14
ADDING AN IRON CORE
Iron is a better conductor of flux than air. The air core
of an electromagnet can be replaced by a piece of soft
iron.
When a piece of iron is placed in the center of the coil
more lines of flux can flow and the magnetic field is
strengthened.

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STRENGTH OF MAGNETIC FIELD (CONT)
Because the magnetic field around a wire is
circular and perpendicular to the wire, an easy
way to amplify the wire's magnetic field is to coil
the wire
The strength of the magnetic field in the DC
electromagnet can be increased by increasing the
number of turns in the coil. The greater the
number of turns the stronger the magnetic
field will be.

16
FARADAYS LAW AND LENZS LAW
Faradays Law : If a magnetic flux, u, in a coil is changing in
time (n turns), hence a voltage, V
ab
is induced




Lenzs Law : if the loop is closed, a connected to b, the
current would flow in the direction to produce the flux inside
the coil opposing the original flux change. (in other words,
Lenzs Law will determine the polarity of the induced voltage)
u
a
b
t
N V
A
Au
=
V = induced voltage
N = no of turns in coil
Au = change of flux in coil
At = time interval
V
t
Au
=
A
If no turns :
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FARADAYS LAW
The effect of magnetic field:
Induced Voltage from a Time Changing
Magnetic Field
Production of Induced Force on a Wire
Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving
in a Magnetic Field
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ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023) 18
VOLTAGE INDUCED FROM A TIME
CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD
19
VOLTAGE INDUCED IN A CONDUCTOR
MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
Faradays Law for moving conductors : For coils in which wire
(conductor) is moving thru the magnetic flux, an alternate
approach is to separate the voltage induced by time-varying flux
from the voltage induced in a moving conductor.

This situation is indicates the presence of an electromagnetic field
in a wire (conductor). This voltage described by Faradays Law is
called as the flux cutting or Electromotive force, or emf.

The value of the induced voltage is given by

E = Blv
where
E = induced voltage (V)
B = flux density (T)
l = active length of the conductor in the magnetic field (m)
v = relative speed of the conductor (m/s)


The polarity of induced
voltage is given by the
right-hand rule.
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INDUCED FORCE
The electrical circuit consists of battery, resistor, two stationary rails, and movable
bar that can roll or slide along the rails with electrical contact.
When switch is closed:
Current will not start immediately as inductance of the circuit.
(However time constant L/R is very small). Hence, current quickly
reach V/R.
Force is exerted on the bar due to interaction between current and
magnetic flux to the right and made the bar move with certain velocity.
The mechanical power out of the bar.
F = ilB
Force induced on
the conductor:
Unit: (N)
The direction of
force is given by
the right-hand
rule.
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INDUCED FORCE (CONT)
The motion of the bar produces an
electromagnetic force. The polarity of
the emf is +ve where the current enters
the moving bars. The moving bar
generates a back emf that opposes the
current.

The instantaneous electrical power into the bar =
mechanical output power
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PRODUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD
The production of a magnetic field by a current is
determine by Amperes law:






}
= -
net
I dl H
H = magnetic field intensity
dl = differential element of
length along the path of
integration
c
l
Ni
H =
lc = mean path length
Magnetic field intensity:
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PRODUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD
H B =
u = magnetic permeability of
material
r 0
= u0 = permeability of free space
ur = relative permeability of
material
m / H 10 4
7
0

t =
The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the
core also depends on the material of the core.
Magnetic flux density:
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PRODUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD
c
l
Ni
H B

= =
BA = |
c
l
NiA
= |
Total flux:
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MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
iR V=
9 | = = Ni
Electric circuit equation:
Magnetic circuit equation:

Analogy: Electric circuit & Magnetic circuit
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MAGNETIC SATURATION & HYSTERESIS
IN AC MAGNETIC FIELD
unmagnetized Material
Iron becomes
magnetically
saturated
Magnetism increase as
magnetic field magnetized
unmagnetized iron
a
b
c
d
Applied field is reduced; the magnetism
reduced thru diff. curve since iron tends to
retains magnetized state - hence produced
permanent magnet, Residual Flux, |
res

AC increased in negative direction,
magnetic field reversed , the iron
reversely magnetized until saturated
again
If continue apply ac current, curve
continue to follow S-shaped curve
(hysteresis curve)
The area enclosed by hysteresis curve is energy loss per unit volume per cycle heats the iron and is one
reason why electric machines become hot
Therefore, it is required to select magnetic materials that have a narrow hysteresis loop
H
m

Magnetic field density
B
m

ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
27
HYSTERESIS LOSS
During a cycle of variation of i (hence H),
there is a net energy flow from the source to
the coil-core assembly and return to the
source.
Energy flowing is greater than energy
returned.
This energy loss goes to heat the core.
The loss of power in the core due to the
hysteresis effect is called hysteresis loss.
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EDDY CURRENT LOSS
Voltage will be induced in the path of
magnetic core because of time variation of flux
enclosed by the path.

A current, known as an eddy current will flow
around the path.

Because core has resistance, a power loss
will be cause by the eddy current and appear
as heat in the core.


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EDDY CURRENT LOSS
Eddy current can be reduced in 2 ways:

1. Adding a few percent of silicon to iron to
increase the resistivity.

2. Laminate core with thin laminations and
insulated from each other.


Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss = Core loss
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lecture, student should to:
Understand the principle and the nature of
static machines of transformer.

Perform an analysis on transformers which
their principles are basic to the
understanding of electrical machines.

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INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a static machines.
The word transformer comes form the word transform.
Transformer is not an energy conversion device, but is a
device that changes AC electrical power at one voltage
level into AC electrical power at another voltage level
through the action of magnetic field, without a change in
frequency.
It can be either to step-up or step down.
Generation
Station
TX1 TX1
Distributions
TX1
TX1
Transmission
System
33/13.5kV 13.5/6.6kV
6.6kV/415V
Consumer
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TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
Two types of iron-core construction:
a) Core - type construction
b) Shell - type construction

Core - type construction
32 ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
Shell - type construction
33 ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
An ideal transformer is a transformer which has no loses,
i.e. its winding has no ohmic resistance, no magnetic
leakage, and therefore no I
2
R and core loses.
However, it is impossible to realize such a transformer in
practice.
Yet, the approximate characteristic of ideal transformer will
be used in characterized the practical transformer.
V
1
V
2

N
1
: N
2

E
1
E
2

I
1
I
2

V
1
Primary Voltage
V
2
Secondary Voltage
E
1
Primary induced Voltage
E
2
secondary induced Voltage
N
1
:N
2
Transformer ratio
34 ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
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TRANSFORMER EQUATION
Faradays Law states that,
If the flux passes through a coil of wire, a voltage will be
induced in the turns of wire. This voltage is directly
proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect of
time.



If we have N turns of wire,


dt
t d
Emf V
ind ind
) ( u
= =
dt
t d
N Emf V
ind ind
) ( u
= =
Lenzs Law
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TRANSFORMER EQUATION
For an ac sources,
Let V(t) = V
m
sinet
i(t) = i
m
sinet
Since the flux is a sinusoidal function;
Then:
Therefore:


Thus:

t t
m
e sin ) ( u = u
t N
dt
t d
N Emf V
m
m
ind ind
e e
e
cos
sin
u =
u
= =
m m ind ind
fN N Emf V u = u = = t e 2
(max)
m
m m
rms ind
fN
fN N
Emf u =
u
=
u
= 44 . 4
2
2
2
) (
t e
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TRANSFORMER EQUATION
For an ideal transformer


In the equilibrium condition, both the input power will be equaled to the output
power, and this condition is said to ideal condition of a transformer.






From the ideal transformer circuit, note that,


Hence, substitute in (i)
m
m
fN E
fN E
u ==
u ==
2 2
1 1
44 . 4
44 . 4
1
2
2
1
2 2 1 1
cos cos
I
I
V
V
I V I V
power output power Input
=
=
=
u u
(i)
2 2 1 1
V E and V E = =
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TRANSFORMER EQUATION









a
I
I
N
N
E
E
Therefore = = =
1
2
2
1
2
1
,
Where, a is the Voltage Transformation Ratio; which will
determine whether the transformer is going to be step-up
or step-down
E
1
> E
2
For a >1
For a <1 E
1
< E
2
38
Step-down
Step-up
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TRANSFORMER RATING
Transformer rating is normally written in terms of Apparent
Power.
Apparent power is actually the product of its rated current
and rated voltage.
2 2 1 1
I V I V VA = =
Where,
I
1
and I
2
= rated current on primary and secondary winding.
V
1
and V
2
= rated voltage on primary and secondary winding.
Rated currents are actually the full load currents in
transformer

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EXAMPLE
1. 1.5kVA single phase transformer has rated voltage of
144/240 V. Finds its full load current.
Solution

A I
A I
FL
FL
250 . 6
240
1500
417 . 10
144
1500
2
1
= =
= =
40
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE
2. A single phase transformer has 400 primary and
1000 secondary turns. The net cross-sectional
area of the core is 60m
2
. If the primary winding is
connected to a 50Hz supply at 520V, calculate:
a) The induced voltage in the secondary winding
b) The peak value of flux density in the core
Solution
N
1
=400 V
1
=520V A=60m
2

N
2
=1000 V
2
=?
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EXAMPLE 2 (CONT)
a) Know that,




b) Emf,




2
520
1000
400
V
=
2
1
2
1
V
V
N
N
a = =
V V 1300
2
=
| |
| |
2
2 1
/ .. ..........
) 60 )( )( 400 )( 50 ( 44 . 4 520
44 . 4
1300 , 520 ,
44 . 4
44 . 4
m Wb B
B
A B fN E
V E V E known
A B fN
fN E
m
m
m
m
m
=
=
=
= =
=
u =
42
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE
3. A 25kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50
turns on the secondary winding. The primary is connected
to 3000V, 50Hz supply. Find:
a) Full load primary current
b) The induced voltage in the secondary winding
c) The maximum flux in the core
Solution
VA = 25kVA
N
1
=500 V
1
=3000V
N
2
=50 V
2
=?
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EXAMPLE 3 (CONT)
a) Know that,


b) Induced voltage,





c) Max flux
V
I
I
E E
A I
I
I
N
N
a
300
3 . 83
33 . 8
3000
3 . 83
50
33 . 8
500
2
1
1 2
2
1
2
2
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
= =
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
= =
A
V
VA
I
I V VA
FL
33 . 8
3000
10 25
3
1
1
=

= =
=
mWb
f N E
27
) 50 )( 50 ( 44 . 4 300
44 . 4
= u
u =
u =
44
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
(EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT)
V
1
= primary supply voltage
V
2
= 2
nd
terminal (load) voltage
E
1
= primary winding voltage
E
2
= 2
nd
winding voltage
I
1
= primary supply current
I
2
= 2
nd
winding current
I
1

= primary winding current
I
o
= no load current
I
c
= core current
I
m
= magnetism current
R
1
= primary winding resistance
R
2
= 2
nd
winding resistance
X
1
= primary winding leakage reactance
X
2
= 2
nd
winding leakage reactance
R
c
= core resistance
X
m
= magnetism reactance
V
1

I
1

R
1

X
1

R
C

I
c
X
m

I
m

I
o

E
1

E
2

V
2

I
1

N
1
: N
2
R
2

X
2

Load
I
2

45
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (REFERRED
TO PRIMARY)
1) Transferred secondary parameter to primary winding
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
' ' R a R OR R
N
N
R =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
' ' X a X OR X
N
N
X =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
I
I
aV V OR V
N
N
V E
2
2
2 2 2
2
1
'
2 1
'
'
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
V
1

I
1
R
1
X
1

R
C

I
c
X
m

I
m

I
o

E
1

E
2

V
2

I
2
N
1
: N
2
R
2

X
2

Load
I
2

46
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (REFERRED
TO PRIMARY)
2) Transferred core resistance and magnetism reatance
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
' ' R a R OR R
N
N
R =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
V
1

I
1
R
1

X
1

R
C

I
c
X
m

I
m

I
o

E
1

E
2

V
2

I
2

N
1
: N
2
R
2

X
2

Load
I
2

2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
' ' X a X OR X
N
N
X =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
I
I
aV V OR V
N
N
V E
2
2
2 2 2
2
1
'
2 1
'
'
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
47
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L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (REFERRED
TO PRIMARY)
3. Equivalent resistance and reactance
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
' ' R a R OR R
N
N
R =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
V
1

I
1

R
01
X
01
aV
2

2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
' ' X a X OR X
N
N
X =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
'
'
2 1 01
2 1 01
X X X
R R R
+ =
+ =
2 2 2
2
1
'
2
' aV V OR V
N
N
V =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
In some application, the excitation
branch has a small current compared
to load current, thus it may be
neglected without causing serious
error.
48
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (REFERRED
TO SECONDARY)
2
1
1 1
2
1
2
1
' '
a
R
R OR R
N
N
R =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
V
V OR V
N
N
V
1
1 1
1
2
1
' ' =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
I
1

R
1

X
1

R
C

I
c

X
m

I
m

I
o

I
2

R
2

X
2

V
2

2
1
1 1
2
1
2
1
' '
a
X
X OR X
N
N
X =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
V
1
49
1) Transferred primary parameter to secondary winding
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (REFERRED
TO SECONDARY)
2
1
1 1
2
1
2
1
' '
a
X
X OR X
N
N
X =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 1 02
2 1 02
'
'
X X X
R R R
+ =
+ =
I
1

R
02
X
02
V
2

a
V
1
2
1
1 1
2
1
2
1
' '
a
R
R OR R
N
N
R =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
V
V OR V
N
N
V
1
1 1
1
2
1
' ' =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 1
' aI I =
Neglect the excitation branch
50
2. Equivalent resistance and reactance
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE
4. For the parameters obtained from the test of 20kVA
2600/245 V single phase transformer, refer all the
parameters to the high voltage side if all the
parameters are obtained at lower voltage side.
R
c
= 3.3O, X
m
=j1.5O, R
2
= 7.5O, X
2
= j12.4O
Solution
Given
R
c
= 3.3O, X
m
=j1.5O,
R
2
= 7.5O, X
2
= j12.4O
51
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L
E
C
T
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I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 4 (CONT)
i) Refer to H.V side (primary)



R
2
=(10.61)
2
(7.5) = 844.65O,
X
2
=j(10.61)
2
(12.4) = 1.396kO
R
c
=(10.61)
2
(3.3) = 371.6O,
X
m
=j(10.61)
2
(1.5) = j168.9 O

61 . 10
245
2600
2
1
2
1
= = = =
V
V
E
E
a
52
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
POWER FACTOR
Power factor = angle between Current and voltage,
cos u

V
I
u
u = -ve
V
I
u
u = +ve
V
I
u = 1
Lagging Leading
unity
Power factor always lagging for real
transformer.
53
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE
5. A 10 kVA single phase transformer 2000/440V has
primary resistance and reactance of 5.5O and 12O
respectively, while the resistance and reactance of
secondary winding is 0.2O and 0.45 O respectively.
Calculate:
i. The parameter referred to high voltage side and draw the
equivalent circuit
ii. The approximate value of secondary voltage at full load of 0.8
lagging power factor, when primary supply is 2000V.
54
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C
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I
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A
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M
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H
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N
E

(
D
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0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 5 (CONT)
Solution
R
1
=5.5 O, X
1
=j12 O
R
2
=0.2 O, X
2
=j0.45 O
i) Refer to H.V side (primary)


R
2
=(4.55)
2
(0.2) = 4.141O,
X
2
=j(4.55)
2
0.45 = j9.316 O

Therefore,
R
01
=R
1
+R
2
=5.5 + 4.141 = 9.641 O
X
01
=X
1
+X
2
=j12 + j9. 32 = j21.316 O
55 . 4
440
2000
2
1
2
1
= = = =
V
V
E
E
a
V
1

aV
2

R
01
X
01

21.32 9.64
I
1

55
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C
T
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A
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M
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C
H
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N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 5 (CONT)
Solution
ii) Secondary voltage
p.f = 0.8
Cos u = 0.8
u =36.87
o

Full load,
From eqn.



A
V
VA
I
FL
5
2000
10 10
3
1
=

=
o
o o
o o
V
V j
aV I jX R V
7 . 1 214 . 417
) 55 . 4 ( ) 87 . 36 5 )( 316 . 21 641 . 9 ( 0 2000
) )( ( 0
2
2
2 1 01 01 1
Z =
+ Z + = Z
+ Z + = Z u
56
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L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Generally, there are two types of losses;
i. Iron losses :- occur in core parameters
ii. Copper losses :- occur in winding resistance

i. Iron Losses



ii. Copper Losses
circuit open c c c iron
P R I P P = = =
2
) (
02
2
2 01
2
1
2
2
2 1
2
1
) ( ) ( ,
) ( ) (
R I R I P ref erred if or
P R I R I P P
cu
circuit short cu copper
= =
= + = =
P
oc
and P
sc
will be discusses later in transformer test
57
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
To check the performance of the device, by comparing the
output with respect to the input.
The higher the efficiency, the better the system.
% 100
cos
cos
% 100
% 100 ,
2 2
2 2

+ +
=

+
=
=
cu c
losses out
out
P P I V
I V
P P
P
Power Input
Power Output
Ef f iciency
u
u
q
% 100
cos
cos
% 100
cos
cos
2
) (
) (

+ +
=

+ +
=
cu c
n load
cu c
load full
P n P nVA
nVA
P P VA
VA
u
u
q
u
u
q
Where, if load, hence n = ,
load, n= ,
90% of full load, n =0.9
Where P
cu
= P
sc
P
c
= P
oc
58
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
VOLTAGE REGULATION
The purpose of voltage regulation is basically to
determine the percentage of voltage drop
between no load and full load.
Voltage Regulation can be determine based on 3
methods:
a) Basic Definition
b) Short circuit Test
c) Equivalent Circuit
59
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

VOLTAGE REGULATION (BASIC DEFINITION)
In this method, all parameter are being referred to primary
or secondary side.
Can be represented in either
Down voltage Regulation





Up Voltage Regulation
% 100 .

=
NL
FL NL
V
V V
R V
% 100 .

=
FL
FL NL
V
V V
R V
60
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

VOLTAGE REGULATION (SHORT CIRCUIT
TEST)
In this method, direct formula can be used.
( )
% 100
cos
.
1
.
=
V
V
R V
f p sc sc
u u
If referred to primary side
( )
% 100
cos
.
2
.
=
V
V
R V
f p sc sc
u u
If referred to secondary side
Note that:

is for Lagging power factor
+ is for Leading power factor
I
sc
must equal to I
FL
61
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L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

VOLTAGE REGULATION (EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT )
In this method, the parameters must be referred to primary or
secondary
| |
% 100
sin cos
.
1
. 01 . 01 1

=
V
X R I
R V
f p f p
u u
If referred to
primary side
If referred to
secondary side
Note that:

+ is for Lagging power factor
is for Leading power factor
j terms ~0

| |
% 100
sin cos
.
2
. 02 . 02 2

=
V
X R I
R V
f p f p
u u
62
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L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE
6. In example 5, determine the Voltage regulation by using
down voltage regulation and equivalent circuit.
Solution
Down voltage Regulation
Know that, V
2FL
=422.6V
V
2NL
=440V
Therefore,

% 95 . 3
% 100
440
6 . 422 440
% 100 .
=

=
NL
FL NL
V
V V
R V
63
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C
T
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I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 6 (CONT)
Equivalent Circuit
I
1
=5A R
01
=9.641O X
01
= 21.316O V
1
=2000V, 0.8 lagging p.f


| |
| |
% 13 . 5
% 100
2000
) 6 . 0 ( 32 . 21 ) 8 . 0 ( 64 . 9 5
% 100
sin cos
.
1
. 01 . 01 1
=

+
=

=
V
X R I
R V
f p f p
u u
64
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L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE
7. A short circuit test was performed at the secondary side of 10kVA,
240/100V transformer. Determine the voltage regulation at 0.8
lagging power factor if
V
sc
=18V
I
sc
=100
P
sc
=240W
Solution
Check:




Hence, we can use short-circuit method

,
100
100
10000
2
2
sc FL
FL
I I
A
V
VA
I
=
= = =
( )
% 100
cos
.
2
.
=
V
V
R V
f p sc sc
u u
65
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L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
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I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 7 (CONT)
( )
o
sc sc
sc
sc
sc sc sc sc
o
f p
f p sc sc
I V
P
I V P
that Know
Hence
f p Given
V
V
R V
34 . 82
) 100 )( 18 (
240
cos
cos
cos
,
87 . 36 8 . 0 cos ,
8 . 0 .
% 100
cos
.
1
1
1
.
2
.
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
= =
=
=

u
u
u
u u
( )
% 62 . 12
% 100
100
87 . 36 34 . 82 cos 18
.
=

=
o o
R V 66
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE
8. The following data were obtained in test on 20kVA
2400/240V, 60Hz transformer.
V
sc
=72V
I
sc
=8.33A
P
sc
=268W
P
oc
=170W
The measuring instrument are connected in the
primary side for short circuit test. Determine the
voltage regulation for 0.8 lagging p.f. (use all 3
methods), full load efficiency and half load efficiency.
67
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE 8 (CONT)
( )
. 732 . 7 861 . 3 46 . 63 643 . 8
643 . 8
33 . 8
72
46 . 63
) 33 . 8 )( 72 (
268
cos
cos
cos
,
87 . 36 8 . 0 cos ,
8 . 0 .
% 100
cos
.
01 01
1
1
1
.
2
.
side primary to connected because jX R j Z
I
V
Z
I V
P
I V P
that Know
Hence
f p Given
V
V
R V
o
sc
sc
sc
sc
o
sc sc
sc
sc
sc sc sc sc
o
f p
f p sc sc
+ = + = Z =
O = = =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
= =
=
=

u
u
u
u u
68
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE 8 (CONT)
( )
( )
| |
| |
% 68 . 2 % 100
2400
) 6 . 0 ( 72 . 7 ) 8 . 0 ( 86 . 3
2400
20000
% 100
sin cos
. , . 2
% 68 . 2 % 100
2400
87 . 36 4 . 63 cos 72
.
% 100
cos
. , . 1
1
. 01 . 01 1
1
.
=
+

=
=

=
=
V
X R I
R V circuit Equivalent
R V
V
V
R V method Circuit Short
f p f p
o o
f p sc sc
u u
u u
69
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE 8 (CONT)
( )
% 68 . 2
% 100
240
58 . 233 240
% 100 .
79 . 0 58 . 233
240
2400
4 . 63 64 . 8 87 . 36
2400
20000
0 2400
, . 3
2
2
2 01 1 1
=

=
Z =
|
.
|

\
|
+ Z
|
.
|

\
|
Z = Z
+ =
NL
FL NL
o
o o o
V
V V
R V
V V
V
aV Z I V
Def ination Basic
70
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE 8 (CONT)
% 12 . 97 % 100
) 268 ( ) 5 . 0 ( 170 ) 8 . 0 )( 20000 )( 5 . 0 (
) 8 . 0 )( 20000 )( 5 . 0 (
% 34 . 97 % 100
) 268 ( ) 1 ( 170 ) 8 . 0 )( 20000 )( 1 (
) 8 . 0 )( 20000 )( 1 (
2
) (
2
) (
=
+ +
=
=
+ +
=
load half
load full
q
q
71
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
MEASUREMENT ON TRANSFORMER
There are two test conducted on transformer.
i. Open Circuit Test
ii. Short Circuit test

The test is conducted to determine the parameter of
the transformer.
Open circuit test is conducted to determine
magnetism parameter, R
c
and X
m
.
Short circuit test is conducted to determine the
copper parameter depending where the test is
performed. If performed at primary, hence the
parameters are R
01
and X
01
and vice-versa.
72
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST
Measurement are at high voltage side
From a given test parameters,
R
c

X
m

V
oc

I
c
I
m

V
oc

I
oc
cosu
oc
I
oc

V
oc

I
c

I
m

u
I
oc
sinu
oc
u
oc

Note:
If the question asked parameters referred to
Low voltage side, the parameters (R
c
and X
m
) obtained
need to be referred to low voltage side
m
oc
m
c
oc
c
m c
oc oc m
oc oc c
oc oc
oc
oc
oc oc oc oc
I
V
X
I
V
R
X and R Then
I I
I I
Hence
I V
P
I V P
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

,
, ,
sin
cos
,
cos
cos
1
u
u
u
u
73
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST
Measurement are at low voltage side
If the given test parameters are taken on primary
side, R
01
and X
01
will be obtained. Or else, vice-
versa.
X
01

R
01

For a case referred to
Primary side
01 01 01
01
1
,
cos
cos
jX R Z
I
V
Z
Hence
I V
P
I V P
sc
sc
sc
sc sc
sc
sc
sc sc sc sc
+ =
Z =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

u
u
u
74
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE
9. Given the test on 500kVA 2300/208V are as follows:
P
oc
= 3800W P
sc
= 6200W
V
oc
= 208V V
sc
= 95V

I
oc
= 52.5A I
sc
= 217.4A

Determine the transformer parameters and draw
equivalent circuit referred to high voltage side. Also
calculate appropriate value of V
2
at full load,

the full
load efficiency, half load efficiency and voltage
regulation, when power factor is 0.866 lagging.


[1392O, 517.2O, 0.13O, 0.44O, 202V, 97.74%, 97.59%, 3.04%]
75
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE 9 (CONT)
A
I I
A
I I
I V P
o
oc oc m
o
oc oc c
o
oc
oc oc oc oc
2 . 49
6 . 69 sin 5 . 52
sin
26 . 18
6 . 69 cos 5 . 52
cos
6 . 69
) 208 )( 5 . 52 (
3800
cos
cos
1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

u
u
u
u
I
oc
cosu
oc
I
oc

V
oc

I
c

I
m

u
I
oc
sinu
oc
u
oc

From Open Circuit Test,
76
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 9 (CONT)
O = = =
O = = =
23 . 4
21 . 49
208
39 . 11
26 . 18
208
m
oc
m
c
oc
c
I
V
X
I
V
R
Since V
oc
=208V
all reading are taken on the secondary side
Parameters referred to high voltage side,
O =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
O =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
21 . 517
208
2300
23 . 4 '
1392
208
2300
39 . 11 '
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
E
E
X X
E
E
R R
m m
c c
77
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 9 (CONT)
A
V
VA
I
FL
4 . 217
2300
10 500
3
1
1
=

= =
o
sc
sc sc sc sc
I V P
53 . 72
) 4 . 217 )( 95 (
6200
cos
cos
1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

u
u
From Short Circuit Test,

First, check the I
sc

Since I
FL1
=I
sc
, all reading are actually taken on the primary side
O + =
Z = Z
|
.
|

\
|
=
Z
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
42 . 0 13 . 0
53 . 72 44 . 0 53 . 72
4 . 217
95
01
j
I
V
Z
o o
sc
sc
sc
u
78
ELECTRICAL MACHINE (DEI 2023)
EXAMPLE 9 (CONT)
Equivalent circuit referred to high voltage side,
V
2
=aV
2
V
1
R
c
1392O
X
m
517.21O
R
01
0.13O
X
01
0.42O
79
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 9 (CONT)
Efficiency,q
% 59 . 97
% 100
3800 ) 5 . 0 )( 6200 ( ) 866 . 0 )( 10 500 )( 5 . 0 (
) 866 . 0 )( 10 500 )( 5 . 0 (
% 100
cos
cos
% 74 . 97
% 100
3800 6200 ) 866 . 0 )( 10 500 (
) 866 . 0 )( 10 500 (
% 100
cos
cos
2 3
3
2
2
1
3
3
=

+ +

=

+ +
=
=

+ +

=

+ +
=
oc sc
L
oc sc
FL
P P n nVA
nVA
P P VA
VA
u
u
q
u
u
q
80
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L

M
A
C
H
I
N
E

(
D
E
I

2
0
2
3
)

EXAMPLE 9 (CONT)
Voltage Regulation,
| |
| |
% 04 . 3
% 100
2300
30 53 . 72 cos ) 95 (
% 100
cos
.
1
=

=
E
V
R V
pf sc sc
u u
81