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Fuel cells:
Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly
to electrical energy at highest possible
efficiency of all energy conversion devices,
direct or indirect.
Fuel cells use hydrogen as fuel and oxygen as
oxidant.
The two gases are pumped in to a cell
containing an anode, a cathode and an
electrolyte.
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An electrical load is connected externally,
through which electrons that are separated
from the hydrogen nucleus at the anode
flow, which constitutes the electric current.
These electrons return to the cell at the
cathode where they are absorbed by the
hydrogen and oxygen ions to form H
2
O.
The electrolyte is necessary to conduct the
positively charged hydrogen ions from
anode to the cathode to complete the
circuit.
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Originally the fuel cells was manufactured
for manned space missions ( Gemini and
Apollo of USA).
In these the hydrogen fuel and oxygen were
stored in their pure form as liquids, and the
resulting combustion product, namely water,
was then used for drinking by the astronauts.
For terrestrial uses, in addition to utilizing
the fuel and oxidant in liquid form, cheaper
methods are also utilized.
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These involve using hydrogen containing gases or
liquids for the fuel at the anode and air containing
oxygen at the cathode.
Such cells are not as efficient as using H2 and O2 in
pure form.
Examples: Nitrogenous:
Ammonia-NH3
Hydrazine N2H4
Hydrocarbons:
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The hydro carbons are cracked with steam
giving rise to CO, CO2 and H2.
This is usually carried out outside the cell,
but sometimes can be done inside also.
The main product to serve as fuel is H2.
H2 is blown through a porous metallic
electrode consisting of catalysts such as
platinum and noble metals.

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The hydrogen molecule containing two
atoms in bondage with its electron losses
this bond and releases the two electrons.
Then it becomes a doubly charged
molecule, 2H.
This is an oxidation process and does not
involve internal energy, called Gibbs energy.
The electrons accumulates on the surface of
the metallic anode.
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The electrode acquires positively charged
ions adjacent to the electrode.
As a result, a charge separation occurs
resulting in a potential difference, positive
on the electrolyte side and negative on the
anode side like the plates of a capacitor.
The H ions pass through the electrolyte
such as KOH, in which the bond is ionic
with K and OH ions being present.
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At the cathode, electrons returning back to
the cell from the external circuit combine
with oxygen and react with water in the
KOH solution of the electrolyte to form
hydroxyl ions:
O+4e+2HO 4OH
The oxygen suffers a reduction process
through combining with the electrons.
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These enter the electrolyte and maintain
the strength of the KOH, there by forming a
vehicle for transporting the electrons from
the cathode to the anode.
The H ions and OH ions combine to form
HO and go into solution.
The electrodes must be good electrical
conductors and highly resistant to corrosive
environment.
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They must also be catalytic to perform
charge separation, but not take part in any
chemical reaction themselves.
Fuel cells work best with platinum as
electrodes.
Hence, 25 % of the cost of the cell is in
these electrodes.
The electrode is a carrier of charges and can
be either acidic or alkaline, and be in liquid
or solid state.
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The basic necessities for bringing sizes and costs
down are that the reactants must have a very good
degree of reactivity.
This may sometimes require fuel and oxidant in very
pure forms, if they can be obtained at reasonable
cost, or that the temperature and pressure must be
raised.
Regeneration in which the product materials can be
re-converted to fuel and oxidant reduces costs.
Regeneration is employed in terrestrial and
industrial applications where the size is not a
primary governing factor as in space applications.
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Principles of EMF Generation:
The fuel cell generates an EMF across the
anode and cathode by chemical reaction.
No heat is added from external source or a
mechanical input given as in MHD or steam
turbine driven alternators.
Current flow due to the generated emf is
caused by the electrons which have been
detached from the hydrogen molecule at the
anode.
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The electric charge distributions near the
anode and cathode are as shown in fig (a)
when the cell is open circuited and
operating without load.
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At the anode which is the most negative
terminal, electrons are accumulated, while
adjacent to it inside the electrolyte positive
charges exist.
This gives a potential difference Va.
The electrolyte being a conductor is at this
potential.
At the cathode, because of the presence of
OH ions, the electrolyte is negative with
respect to the cathode by the potential Vc.
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Therefore, the open circuit voltage of the cell
is: Voc=Va+Vc.
When the cell carries a current, the voltage
drop across the cell makes the cathode side of
the electrolyte lower its voltage with respect to
anode as in fig (b).
This lowering of voltage creates an uphill
gradient for the negative charges to flow.
Consequently the voltage appearing across
load drops from the open-circuit voltage.
One of main contribution to this voltage drop
is internal resistance drop of the electrolyte.

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Description of Fuel Cells:
The five types of cells developed to date are:
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell PAFC
Alkaline Fuel Cell AFC
Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell SPEFC
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell MCFC
High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cell -
HTSOFC
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Fuel cells possess the following desirable
qualities:
High Conversion efficiency of fuel into
electricity.
Modular construction where power is
necessary, eliminating transmission lines.
Pollutants, both thermal and chemical, are
minimum.
They can be combined with other systems and
offer the possibility of co-generation which is
more desirable than operating as a single
system.

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Possibility of regeneration of fuel from
products.
Using Scrubber technology to generate
hydrogen fuel from hydrocarbons.
Continuous power as long as fuel is fed.

The main disadvantage is still the high cost
involved in having to use platinum and
other precious metals for electrode-
catalysts
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PAFC:
These are the most highly developed fuel cells
and seeing light of day in industrial power
plants.
They have been built in sizes of 1 MW at 13.8
kV.
The cell possess good stability over a long
period of operation.
The cell operates at about 200C and by using
high pressure efficiency can be improved.
Platinum is electro-catalyst.
This is H-O cell.
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AFC:
These were developed for space
applications.
These require H and O in pure form.
For terrestrial applications, the cost of CO
removal must be added.
The electrolyte is KOH.
The electrodes are made of porous Ni
substrate on which a mixture of Pt and PTFE
are supported.

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SPEFC
These operate at a low temperature of less
than 100C.
Uses a high polymer electrolyte and Pt
electro-catalyst.
These were first developed for space
missions for supply of power to all systems
except propulsion.
But for terrestrial use, the cost is much
higher than PAFC.
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MCFC :
High pressure and temperature increase the
power density, but liquids boil off at
temperatures higher than 500C.
Therefore the electrolyte consists of molten
carbonate of sodium or potassium (NaCO
or KCO).
Electrodes are made of Ni for the anode and
Ag for the cathode.
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HTSOFC
For still higher temperatures of about
1000C; a solid electrolyte is necessary.
Usually Zirconia (ZrO) is used as
electrolyte.
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Applications of Fuel Cells:
While the fuel cells are originally developed
for space missions, they are now used for
terrestrial applications of the following
types:
Electric power generation.
Electric transportation.
Peaking power plants with steam stations
supporting base load at high efficiency.
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The fuel cells maintain high efficiency at part
loads, while the efficiency of steam station falls
off as load is decreased.
By distributing fuel-cell plants close to loads
peak loads can be supplied.
transmission cost can be reduced .
transmission losses can be reduced.
For electric cars, liquid hydrogen and oxygen
tanks are used instead of gasoline tank.
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A schematic of a fuel-cell system for power
generation is sketched in fig. below:





Block diagram of practical fuel-cell power
generation scheme
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