NE-215, Applied Solid State Physics, @CeNSE

First Semester, 2014-15

References:
a. Solid State Physics, Hook and Hall, 2
nd
Edn., Wiley
b. The Picture Book of Quantum Mechanics, Brandt and Dahmen, 4th Edn.,
Springer
c. Introduction to Nanoscience, SM Lindsay, Oxford Univ. Press
d. Others cited as we proceed

And, just because it really is there
2
Britney Spears Guide to Semiconductor Physics,
http://britneyspears.ac/lasers.htm
Metals / non-metals

the boundaries can be disputed
simple metals, transition metals, noble metals
Electrical conductivity of materials
Consider the range
of values of other
physical attributes
of materials

MUCH narrower
Basic assumptions of the classical theory
DC electrical conductivity in the Drude model
The Hall effect
Why do metals look shiny?- Plasma Resonance
Thermal conduction / Wiedemann-Franz law
Failures of the Drude model: heat capacity...
Electrical properties of metals:
Classical approach (Drude theory)
Drudes classical theory
Theory formulated by Paul Drude (Germany) in 1900, a
mere three years after the electron was discovered.
Drude treated the (free) electrons in metals as a classical
ideal gas but with electrons colliding elastically with the
stationary ions, not with other electrons.
RMS speed from:


So, at 300 K,


1
2

2
=
3
2

1
2

2
=
3
2

10
5
m/s
Drudes classical theory

(average time between scattering events)
An average distance between collisions
Relaxation time
Mean free path =

~ 1 nm

~ 10
5
m/s

~ 10
-14
s


As in the kinetic theory of gases, an interval between collisions,
8
Kinetic Theory of Gases: Ideal Gas Assumed

Density of gas molecules at STP:
Avogadros Number, N
A
, of them in 22.4 liters
In 1 cm
3
, it is
2.69x10
19
molecules (Loschmidts Number)
or, 2.69x10
25
per m
3

In any case, in real gases, the Gas Equation PV=nRT
is valid only at high temperatures and low pressures,
i.e., at low gas densities

What about the electron gas?
Conduction Electron Density
=

Z
v
is the no. of valence electrons
per atom

m
/A
is the no. of electrons/unit volume
where
m
is the mass density
and A is the atomic weight
MUCH higher than Loschmidts number!
Drudes theory must surely be wrong, because


At these densities, electrons should interact strongly with
one other. Why dont they?
Electrons should also interact strongly with the lattice ions.
Why dont they?
The application of classical statistics, i.e., Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution of energies, which leads to the
Equipartition of Energy, cannot be valid for electrons.

This last aspect may be elaborated a bit further
(anticipating a later part of this segment)..
Condition for using classical statistics:




The mean de Broglie wavelength of an electron is:

=

2
=

(2
3
2

)


At 300 K,

~ 6x10
-9
m

where is the mean separation between particles
and is the mean de Broglie wavelength
So, classical statistics
can hardly be valid for the
free electron gas
However,
In a theory which gives results like this, there must
certainly be a great deal of truth
- H.A. Lorentz, a Dutch contemporary of Drude
What are these results?
Drude theory: electrical conductivity
We apply a DC electric field to a metallic sample.
The equation of motion of an electron in it is:
Upon integration,
Recall that:
and if is the average time between collisions then the
average drift speed is
For ~ 10 V/m,
we get

=

= 10
-2
m/s

10
5
m/s


=

thermal
With ~10
-14
s,

Drude theory: electrical conductivity
we get
Ohms law
Number of electrons passing in unit time
Because
Current density
Current of negatively charged electrons
1





= ()

=

Drude theory: electrical conductivity
Ohms law
and we can define
the conductivity
and the
resistivity
and the
mobility
=

= =

=

=

= 1/
=

Drift velocity/unit applied field
Ohms law
Valid for metals
Valid for
homogeneous
semiconductors
Not valid for
inhomogeneous
(semi)conductors
(e.g., a p-n junction)
=

Measurement of
conductivity / resistivity
A two-point probe can be used but the contact/wire
resistance can be a problem, especially if the resistivity of
the sample is low.
Measurement of
conductivity / resistivity
The problem of contact resistance can be overcome by
using a four-point probe.
Measurement of Resistivity
Two-point probe Four-point probe
Measures sample only
I

V
I

V
R
contact
R
contact

R
sample

I
V
R
contact
R
contact

R
sample

I

V
I

Measures resistance of
(sample + contact + probe)
In four-point probe, negligible current flows through the voltmeter, the only
voltage drop measured is across R
sample
.
i << I
Measurement of Resistivity
Two-point probe Four-point probe
Measures sample only
R
contact
R
contact

R
sample

I
V
R
contact
R
contact

R
sample

I
V
I
I
Measures sample + contact
resistance + probe resistance
i << I
V
meas
= I R
contact
+ R
sample
+ R
lead
( )
= IR
sample
desired
+ I R
contact
++R
lead
( )
significant
V
meas
= I +i
( )
R
sample
+i R
contact
+ R
lead
( )
= IR
sample
desired
+i R
sample
+ R
contact
++R
lead
( )
negligible
The van der Pauw method
van der Pauw found a method to determine the
resistivity of a sample of arbitrary shape, provided:
a) the contacts are at the circumference of the sample
b) the contacts are very small (point contacts)
c) the sample is of uniform thickness, t
d) the surface of the sample is singly connected, i.e.,
the sample does not have isolated holes

van der Pauw, L.J. (1958). "A method of measuring
specific resistivity and Hall effect of discs of arbitrary
shape". Philips Research Reports 13: 19.
The van der Pauw method
#1
#2
#3
#4
ab
cd
cd ab
I
V
R =
,
f
R R
t
2 2 ln
41 , 23 34 , 12

=
t

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41 , 23
34 , 12
R
R
f f
Collinear Contacts
Typical pellet and contact sizes for collinear contacts:
d s
t
D
d = 1 mm
s = 2 mm
t = 1-2 mm
D = 12.7 mm
Collinear contacts

V
s
I
V
s t 2 =
Collinear contacts
I

V
s
F
I
V
s t 2 =
F corrects for sample thickness, sample
diameter, edge effects, and temperature.
Drude theory: electrical conductivity
Supposed to be a
straight line
=

~ 1 nm
1
2

2
=
3
2

= (
3

)

Discrepancy gets worse at low T
Drude theory: (DC) electrical conductivity
Drudes theory gives a reasonable picture of the
phenomenon of resistance in metals.
Drudes theory leads qualitatively to Ohms law (linear
dependence of current density on the applied electric field).
It also gives reasonable quantitative values for conductivity,
at least at room temperature.
The Hall Effect
Accumulation of charge leads to Hall field E
H
.
Hall field proportional both to current density and B field
is called the Hall coefficient

The Hall coefficient
Deduce carrier density from Ohms law?
Not a good idea to depend on estimates of
for the steady
State, we get
= ( )

=

Therefore,

=
1

The Hall coefficient
Ohms law contains e
2
But for

the sign of e
is important.


=

=
1

not supposed to be negative for a metal!

What if the current carriers are
positively charged?

=
1

=
1

electrons
holes
Drude theory: why are metals shiny?
Drudes theory gives an explanation of why metals do not
transmit light, but reflect it.
Some relations from basic optics:
EM wave propagation in matter
Plane wave
complex index
of refraction
Maxwell relation
all the interesting (material) physics lies in the dielectric function!
(, ) =

()


=
2

0


= +

= = (

)

, =

(
2

0
)
=

)

, =
0

(
2

0
)

Wave damped due to "

Free-electron dielectric function
An electron in
time-dependent field
we write
and get
the dipole moment
for one electron is
and for a unit volume
of solid it is

2
()

2
= ()

=

2
=

=

2


=

Harmonic motion
Free-electron dielectric function
We have
Therefore,
Thus, we get

p
called
the plasma frequency
Collective motion of the
Free Electron Gas
=
0
=
0
+

= 1 +

= 1

2
= 1

2
=

Meaning of the plasma frequency
The dielectric function in the Drude model is

Recalling that
with
real and positive propagating waves,
metal is transparent
real and negative no wave propagation,
metal is opaque: skin depth
= 1

2
=

, =

(
2

0
)
=

)

<

>

The reflection of visible light accounts for the lustre of metals
Plasma frequency: simple interpretation
Longitudinal, resonant, collective oscillation mode of the electron gas
values for the plasma energy

= (

)

=

Excellent support to
Drudes theory