Thermodynamics & Thermoregulation

Tujuan
Menjelaskan proses terbentuknya panas
(produksi panas) pada manusia
Menjelaskan proses kehilangan panas pada
manusia
Menjelaskan transfer (pemindahan) panas
dalam tubuh manusia
Menjelaskan pengaruh susunan saraf pusat
terhadap perubahan suhu
Menjelaskan mekanisme kompensasi tubuh
terhadap perubahan suhu
Why is
body temperature
important to us?
Introduction
1. Heat is the final and irreversible form in which
energy obtained from the oxidation of
foodstuffs is eliminated from the body
At about 75 80% the energy obtained from
oxidations is converted into heat
2. Only in narrow limits of temperature of internal
environment metabolism takes place
Nerve cells are sensitive to temperature changes
Enzymes (that is protein) involved in chemical
process in the body are proteins which are
inactivated when temperature rises above a certain
level
Species ability to control
body temperature
According to the capacity to regulate body
temperature, Gods creature is classified
into:
Poikilothermic
Homoiothermic
Poikilothermic

Its body temperature varies with
environmental temperature
For example: invertebrates, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles

Homoiothermic
They can maintain body temperature,
within narrow limits
Changes in environmental temperature
provokes only slight oscillations in the
body temperature
Examples: vertebrate, human
Measurement of
Body Temperature
Measurement of body
temperature
In medical practice, body t
0
is measured by
placing a thermometer
under the tongue
in the axilla
in the rectum
Rectal temperature

The most representative of the body core t
0

A daily oscillation from 35.9 37.3
0
C (96.5
99.1
0
F)

The average is usually given as 37.0
0
C (98.6
0
F)
It varies least by changes in environmental t
0
It is more reliable, but has esthetical problem
When there is any doubt of the existence of
fever, the rectal temperature should be taken
Temperature in the mouth
Thermometer is placed under the tongue
& keeping the mouth closed
It is normally 0.3 0.5
0
C lower than
temperature in the rectum
It is affected by hot or cold beverages,
gum-chewing, smoking & mouth breathing
Temperature in the axilla
The thermometer should be left in place for 5
minutes, with the arm held tightly against the
thorax
It is 0.2 0.4
0
C below temperature in the mouth
and 0.5 1
0
C below that of the rectum
It varies daily between 36.2 36.9
0
C (97.2
98.4
0
F)
an average is 36.6
0
C (97.8
0
F)
exceptionally reaching 37.2
0
C (98.96
0
F)
Temperature in the skin
Topographic differences in
skin temperature
The highest is in the skin of the trunk & head
In extremities, it lowers from proximal to distal
Temperature in the skin (cont.)
The influencing factors:
External
The temperature of the environment
The humidity of the atmosphere
The ventilation
The amount of clothing
Internal
The state of the circulation in the skin
The evaporation of sweat
Temperature of the visceral
It is 1 1.5
0
C (1.8 2.7
0
C) above the
temperature in the axilla
The highest is in the liver
Temperature of the scrotum is regulated at 32
0
C
Blood temperature is cooler in the veins than in
the artery
Blood temperature is cooled as it passes
through the lungs. Thus, it is warmer in the right
ventricle than in the left ventricle.
Diurnal variation
Daily variation of body temperature:
Normal human core t
0
undergoes a regular
circadian fluctuation of 0.5 0.7
0
C
At its maximum between 5 8 pm
At its minimum between 2 6 am
It is related to variations in muscular
activity and metabolism
Diurnal variation
Daily variation of body temperature:
It is influenced by:
Light-dark cycle
Food
An inversion of usual cycle
Nightworkers
Subjects travelling around the world
Monthly variation
In reproductive women
At the moment of ovulation the
temperature falls (about 0.2
0
C)
It rises 0.1 to 0.4
0
C during the luteal
phase, owing to the effect of the luteal
hormone (progesterone & hCG)
During menstruation it again falls (0.6
0
C)
Age
A newborn child has a slightly higher body t
0
than an adult
Newborns body temperature is 0.5
0
C above than
adults
Newborns body temperature is not very stable
compared to adults (Stability in the body
temperature increases with age)
A hot or a cold bath causes a rise or a fall in
newborns body temperature
In old age the temperature tends to be lower
Other variation
A subnormal temperature in subjects with
a low metabolic rate
In undernourishment
Starvation
Myxedema
Hypophyseal insufficiency
Other variation
The body temperature is frequently above
normal in:
Hyperthyroid subjects
Due to high muscular tone & tremor
On very hot days
A little after a meal
During exercise
Strenuous exercise produces a transitory rises up
to 39 40
0
C
Tetanus
Regulation of body
temperature
Regulation of body temperature
Balance between heat production and
heat loss
Heat production chemical reaction
chemical heat regulation
Heat loss physical in nature
physical heat regulation
Heat production
Basal metabolic rate
Extra metabolism caused by:
Contraction of the skeletal muscle
Action of thyroxine (in less extent: growth
hormone, testosterone)
Action of adrenalin & noradrenalin hormones,
and stimulation of the sympathetic nerve
fibers
Thermodynamic effect of the food
Basal Metabolism Process
is the amount of energy needed to perform
body function under resting condition
under resting condition, energy is used in
Liver and spleen 27%
Brain 19%
Kidneys 10%
Skeletal muscles
Heart
Thermodynamic effect of food
is called Specific Dynamic Action (SDA)
The extra heat associated with
consumption of food, especially of
protein, because of the process of de-
amination of amino acids and formation
of urea
Contraction of skeletal muscle
in work or exercise
in cool environment shivering
Catecholamine (Adrenaline)
Produces a rapid (acute) but short-lived
increase in heat production
Increase glycolysis
Increase BFT (Brown Fat Thermogenesis)
Brown Fat
A kind of fat that has a high rate of
metabolism
Innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers
Important in baby/ infants
It becomes heat source for infants
non-shivering thermogenesis mechanism
Hormone from the thyroid gland
Thyroxin produces slowly developing but
prolonged increase in heat production
(days)
Increase metabolism through increase
uncoupling oxidative phosphorilation
(UCP)
Increase activity of Na
+
-K
+
-ATP ase
Its secretion is increased by cold
Adjusting heat production
In hotter places increase metabolism
increase heat production
In cold environment decrease
metabolism decrease heat production

Heat loss
From deeper tissue to the skin
deeper tissue: liver, brain, heart, skeletal
muscle during exercise
From the skin to the surroundings
Modes of heat loss
Radiation
Conduction
Convection
Evaporation

Radiation
Heat passes from the body by invisible
infrared rays
It occurs when temperature of surrounding
objects (walls, furniture, etc.) is lower than
temperature of the bod
When many people are in the same room,
they irradiate each other, their body
temperature rises, and discomfort is felt

Convection
The removal of heat from the body by
convection air
The heat is conducted to the air first, the
warm air becomes lighter and rises, thus
replaced by cold air
The current of air
Conduction
Conduction to solid objects
Heat loss after the skin contacts directly with
cold objects
Conduction to the air
Conduction to the water

Evaporation
Insensible perspiration
600 700 ml/ day
occurred in:
The skin
The lungs (respiratory tract) water vapor
Sweating
HEAT TRANSFER
Channels of heat loss
Skin (85%)
Perspiration insensibilis
Changes in cutaneous blood flow
Sweating
Lungs
Water vapor
Excreta
Gastrointestinal tract
Genitourinary tract
Modes of heat loss in
low to moderate environmental
temperature
Bodys heat loss at moderate
environmental temperature (at a 25
0
C)


Modes of Heat Losses Contribution
(%)
Radiation & Convection 70 75
(55 + 15)
Evaporation 21.5
Heating foods 1.5
Heating air in the lungs 1.3
Heat loss from urine & feces 0.7
Heat loss by convection and radiation
Vasodilatation
Behavioral changes

Vasodilatation
The skin and subcutaneous fatty tissue
are heat isolators
Blood is good heat conductors

Heat loss by convection is determined by
the amount of blood flow through
cutaneous blood vessels
Cutaneous blood vessels
Sympathetic Innervations of
Blood Vessels
The effect of vasodilatation and
vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels
to heat conductance
Mechanism of vasodilatation
There is a need for heat loss

Decrease of sympathetic activity

Decrease of norepinephrine release

Vasodilatation of cutaneous vessels

Increase of blood flow Heat loss
Behavioral changes in hot
environment
Clothes
Thin & dry clothes
Moving to another place
To windy place
Bodys heat loss at
high environmental temperature
There is increased sweating and followed
hopefully by increased evaporation by
which the body losses heat.
Human sweats very little at low &
moderate temperatures, but it sharply
increases at high t
0
Bodys heat loss at high environmental
temperature


Modes of Heat Losses
Radiation & Convection
Evaporation
Heating foods
Heating air in the lungs
Heat loss from urine & feces
Evaporation does not increase noticeably
in environmental temperature < 30
0
C
At temperature < 30
0
C, there is a sudden
increase in sweat secretion
At t 35
0
C, nearly all the heat is eliminated
by evaporation
At 37
0
C, heat is absolutely dissipated by
evaporation
Evaporation of sweat from the surface of
human skin relates to the function of sweat
glands, which are innervated by
sympathetic nerves secreted acetylcholine
serabut saraf simpatetik kolinergik .
Sweat gland
Sweat gland
Innervation: cholinergic sympathetic nerve
fibers
Also has adrenergic receptors can be
stimulated by adrenalin and noradrenalin
(hormones) in the blood important
during exercise
Sweat glands have acetylcholine
receptors
Acetylcholine and pilocarpine are
agonist of acetylcholine receptors at
sweat glands stimulate secretion of
sweat sweating
Atropine is antagonist inhibits is
not sweating
Mechanism of sweating
Mechanism of sweat secretion at rest:
sweat glands are stimulated slightly
primary secretion passes the ducts slowly
extensive Na
+
and Cl
-
reabsorbtion
thorough the ducts hypo-osmotic of the
sweat passive reabsorbtion of water
the sweat is very concentrated and small
loss of NaCl (5 mEq/ L)
Unacclimatization
High environmental temperature or during
exercise: sweat glands are stimulated
strongly primary secretion passes the
ducts fast slightly Na
+
and Cl
-

reabsorbtion thorough the ducts
passive reabsorbtion of water is little
the result: the sweat is not very
concentrated and large loss of Na
+
(50
60 mEq/ L) happened in an
unacclimatized subject
Acclimatization
Person who familiarized with hot
environmental temperature for 1 6
weeks will:
produce profuse sweating 2 3 L/ day
Increased 10 times cooling effect of
evaporation to body
Decreased NaCl content in the sweat
better conservation of body salt
Roles of aldosteron to increase NaCl
reabsorbtion from the ducts
Sweat secretion is stimulated
by
1. Increase environmental temperature
2. Physical exercise
3. Psychic factors
4. Stimulation of nerve center (such as
asphyxia)
5. Sleep
6. Reflexes
Evaporation
Evaporation occurs when there is
difference between the pressure of water
vapor in the skin and in the air.
Therefore, the rate of evaporation is
inversely related to relative humidity (RH)

Evaporation
Relative humidity (RH)
RH = the amount of air moisture
the maximal amount of air moisture
When the air is already saturated with
moisture (RH = 100%) the air can not take
water vapor up from sweat evaporation
When the air t
0
raises, RH becomes lower (RH
< 100%) the air can take water vapor up
evaporation
Humidity
High humidity makes people feel hotter
outside in the summer because it reduces
the effectiveness of sweating to cool the
body by reducing the evaporation of
perspiration from the skin
Humidity can be measured using a variety
of instruments. Relative humidity is often
determined using a sling psychrometer or a
hair hygrometer.
Evaporation diminishes as the humidity of
the atmosphere increases
Heat is tolerated better in a dry
atmosphere than in a damp one
With a t 37
0
C and 100% humidity, it would
be impossible for the organism to lose
heat either by radiation and evaporation
An optimum sensation of well-being is
experienced with an environmental
temperature around 20
0
C (68
0
F) and a
relative humidity of 50 60%

Evaporation from the respiratory tract
Heat loss can be increased through the
increase of the rate & depth of respiration
(polypnea, panting)
In dogs: the mouth opens, the tongue hangs
out, and hypersalivation occurs
In cold environment
Radiation and convection is decreased
heat loss is decreased heat conservation
Modes of decreased radiation & convection
Vasoconstriction
Horripilation
Behavioral changes
Mechanism of vasoconstriction
There is a need for heat conservation

Increase of sympathetic activity

Release of norepinephrine

Vasoconstricion of cutaneous vessels

Decrease of blood flow Heat loss
Horripilation
Contraction of smooth muscles of the skin
(mm. arrectores pilorum)

Air trap in the fur

Heat isolator

Bodys heat loss
Behavioral changes in hot
environment
Clothes
Thick ones
Curling up
To decrease body surface area ( BSA )
Moving to another place
To colder place

Heat regulating center Posterior
area hypothalamus


Receptors
Peripheral thermoreceptors: in skin (skin
thermoreceptors)
Central thermoreceptor: in the preoptic
area of the hypothalamus (anterior
hypothalamus)
Skin thermoreceptors
Warmth receptors
Stimulated by increased environmental
temperature, up to 44 -46
0
C
Cold receptors
is stimulated as local temperature
decreases from 40
0
C to 24 28
0
C
Cold receptors are much more abundant &
important than warmth receptors
Skin thermoreceptors provide:
information about skin/ environmental
temperature to hypothalamic
thermoregulatory center
conscious perception of environmental
temperature & estimation of thermal comfort
via thalamic pathways to cerebral cortex
Central thermoreceptors
At this anterior part of hypothalamus,
warmth receptors greatly outnumber cold
receptors
Around 10% of hypothalamic neurons
show a positive temperature coefficient
when local temperature (i.e. blood flow to
hypothalamus) is cycled over a range of 2
4
0
C about the mean -- Thermostat

Hypothalamic thermoreceptors are
important during exercise, in which bodys
heat production & dissipation can differ
dramatically, leading to rapid changes in
body core temperature
Thermoregulatory center
The posterior hypothalamus summates the
central and peripheral temperature
sensory signals
Heat regulating center Posterior
area hypothalamus


The response exerted by
the thermoregulatory center when the
body is too hot
Increase heat loss
Cutaneous vasodilatation
Sweating
Increased respiration
Decrease heat production
Anorexia
Apathy & inertia
Shivering is inhibited
The response exerted by
the thermoregulatory center when the
body is too cold
Increase heat production
Shivering
Feeding
Increased thyroxin and catecholamine
secretion
Decrease heat loss
Cutaneous vasoconstriction
Horripilate
What is our
adaptation in the age
of global warming?
Global Warming
A gradual increase in planet temperature
The Earth is the hottest in the last 2,000
years
The average global surface temperature
has increased by approximately 0.5-1.0F
(0.3-0.6C) over the last century

Causes
This warming is largely attributed to the
increase of greenhouse gases (primarily
carbon dioxide and methane) in the
Earth's upper atmosphere caused by
Human burning of fossil fuels, industrial,
farming, and deforestation activities.
Greenhouse gases
Gases reabsorb heat reflected from the
Earth's surface, thus trapping the heat in
our atmosphere
Humans have been artificially increasing
the concentration of these gases, mainly
carbon dioxide and methane, in the Earth's
atmosphere
Greenhouse gases
These gases build up and prevent
additional thermal radiation from leaving
the Earth, thereby trapping excess heat
Effects
More hot days
Changes in humidity and weather patterns
More intense and frequent tropical storms and
hurricanes caused by warmer ocean water
Sea levels are also expected to increase by 0.09
- 0.88 m. in the next century caused mainly
from melting glaciers and expanding seawater
Extinction of wildlife and species that cannot
survive in warmer environments
Effects
Affects human health
spreading of certain diseases such as
malaria
flooding
a greater risk of heat stroke
poor air quality
References
Boron, W.F. & Boulpaep, E.L. Medical
physiology.
Bykov. Textbook of physiology.
Ganong. Review on medical physiology.
Guyton, A.C. & Hall, J.E. Textbook of
medical physiology.
Houssay, B.A. Human physiology.
Exercise
When an individual is standing naked
in a room in which the air temperature
is 21
0
C and humidity is 80%, which
mechanism of heat loss will dominate?
A. elevated metabolism
B. respiration
C. urination
D. vaporization of sweat
E. radiation & conduction

How about the effects of stress
on blood vessels?



How?
Please discuss to your friend!
The effects of stress on cutaneous
blood vessels
Stress activation of HPA axis
HPA: Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal
gland
The medulla of the adrenal gland will
secrete adrenalin diffuse and
distributed in the blood, causing:
General vasoconstriction
Vasodilatation to vital organs (brain, heart,
kidneys)