UNIT IV TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR

QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Quality functions development (QFD)
Benefits, Voice of customer, information
organization, House of quality (HOQ),
building a HOQ, QFD process. Failure mode
effect analysis (FMEA) requirements of
reliability, failure rate, FMEA stages, design,
process and documentation. Seven old
(statistical) tools. Seven new management
tools. Bench marking and POKA YOKE.
QFD
Dr. Mizuno, professor of the Tokyo Institute of
Technology initiated at Mitsubishi, Heavy
Industries, Ltd, Japan, in 1972.
QFD was first introduced in the USA in 1984
by Dr. Clausing of Xerox.
QFD can be applied to practically any
manufacturing or service industry.
Quality function deployment (QFD) is a planning
tool used to fulfill customer expectations.
It is a disciplined approach to product design,
engineering, production and provides in-depth
evaluation of a product.
An organization that correctly implements QFD can
Improve
engineering knowledge,
productivity, and
quality
Reduce
costs,
product development time, and
engineering changes.
QFD focuses on customer expectations or
requirements,
Also called as the voice of the customer.
It is employed to translate customer
expectations, in terms of specific
requirements.


Benefits of QFD
Reduced start-up costs.
Reduced product development time.
Improved product quality and, consequently,
customer satisfaction.
Promotes Teamwork.
Provides Documentation
Voice of the Customer
QFD concentrates on customer expectations and needs, a
considerable amount of effort is put into research
Words used by the customers to describe their
expectations are often referred to as the voice of the
customer.
Sources for determining customer expectations
focus groups,
surveys,
complaints,
consultants, etc
Customer expectations are vague and general in nature.
It is the job of the QFD team to analyze these customer
expectations into more specific customer requirements.

Types of customer information
Solicited (organization can search)
Unsolicited (information can be volunteered)
Organization of Information
QFD team needs to process the information.
Methods ( New 7 Tools)
1) Affinity diagrams,
2) Interrelationship diagrams,
3) Tree diagrams,
4) Matrix diagram,
5) Matrix data analysis,
6) Arrow diagram,
7) Process decision program chart (PDPC).
The affinity diagram, which is ideally suited
for most QFD applications
House of Quality
Primary planning tool used in QFD
It translates the voice of the customer into design
requirements.
The structure of QFD can be thought of as a
framework of a house, as shown below
The exterior walls of the house are the customer
requirements.
On the left side is a listing of the voice of the
customer, or what the customer expects in the
product.
On the right side are the prioritized customer
requirements, or planning matrix.
The ceiling, or second floor, of the house contains
the technical descriptors.
Consistency of the product is provided through
engineering characteristics, design constrains, and
parameters.
The interior wall of the house are the relationships
between customer requirements and technical
descriptors.
The roof of the house is the interrelationship
between technical descriptors.
Trade offs between similar and/or conflicting technical
descriptors are identified.
The foundation of the house is the prioritized
technical descriptors.
Items such as the technical benchmarking,
degree of technical difficulty, and target value are
listed.
This is the basic structure for the house of
quality; once this format is understood, any
other QFD matrices are fairly simple.
Building a House of Quality
The matrix that has been mentioned may
appear to be confusing at first
But when one examines each part
individually, the matrix is significantly
simplified.

Steps in building HOQ
1) List Customer Requirements (WHATs)
2) List Technical Descriptors (HOWs)
3) Develop a Relationship Matrix Between
WHATs and HOWs
4) Develop an Interrelationship Matrix
Between HOWs
5) Competitive Assessments
6) Develop Prioritized Customer
Requirements
7) Develop Prioritized Technical Descriptors
1) List Customer Requirements
QFD starts with a list of goals / objectives.
This list of primary customer requirements is
usually vague and very general in nature.
Further definition is accomplished by defining
a new, more detailed list of secondary
customer requirements.
Finally, the list of customer requirements is
divide into a hierarchy of primary, secondary,
and tertiary customer requirements
2) List Technical Descriptors
The QFD team must come up with engineering
characteristics or technical descriptors
It is an expression of the voice of the customer in
technical language.
list one or more primary technical descriptors for each of
the tertiary customer requirements.
Secondary technical descriptors can include part
specifications and manufacturing parameters
Finally, the list of technical descriptors is divided into a
hierarchy of primary, secondary, and tertiary technical
descriptors
3) Develop a Relationship Matrix
Compare the customer requirements and technical
descriptors and determine their respective
relationships
One way to reduce the confusion associated is to use
an L-shaped matrix
It is a two-dimensional relationship that shows the
intersection of related pairs of items
It is constructed by turning the list of technical
descriptors perpendicular to the list of customer
requirements.
It is common to use symbols to represent the degree
of relationship
It is common to use symbols to represent the
degree of relationship between the customer
requirements and technical descriptors.
For example,
A solid circle represents a strong relationship.
A single circle represents a medium relationship.
A triangle represents a weak relationship.
The box is left blank if no relationship exists.
4) Develop an Interrelationship
Matrix
The roof of the house of quality, called the correlation
matrix.
It is a triangular table attached to the technical
descriptors.
It is used to identify any interrelationships between
each of the technical descriptors.
The symbols describe the direction of the correlation.
In other words, a strong positive interrelationship
would be a nearly perfectly positive correlation.
A strong negative interrelationship would be a nearly
perfectly negative correlation.
This diagram allows the user to identify which
technical descriptors support one another and
which are in conflict.
Conflicting technical descriptor are extremely
important
It represent points at which tradeoffs must be
made.
Tradeoffs that are not identified and resolved
will often lead to unfulfilled requirements.
Example
Car - customer requirements of high fuel
economy and safety yield technical
descriptors that conflict.
The added weight of stronger bumpers, air
bags, antilock brakes, and the soon-to-come
federal side-impact standards will ultimately
reduce the fuel efficiency

5) Competitive Assessments
It is a pair of weighted table (or graphs) that
depict how competitive product compare with
current organization products.
The competitive assessment tables are
separated into two categories, customer
assessment and technical assessment

Customer assessment
It is the block of columns corresponding to
each customer requirement on the right side
of the relationship matrix.
The numbers 1 thorough 5 are listed in the
competitive evaluation column to indicate a
rating of 1 for worst and 5 for best.

Technical assessment
It makes up a block of rows corresponding to
each technical descriptor in the HOQ beneath
the relationship matrix
1 for worst and 5 for best.
Often useful in uncovering gaps in
engineering judgment.
6) Develop Prioritized Customer
Requirements
It is a block of columns corresponding to each
customer requirement in the house of quality
on the right side of the customer competitive
assessment.
Contain columns for importance to customer,
target value, scale-up factor, sales point, and
an absolute weight.

Importance To Customer
The QFD team or the focus group ranks each
customer requirement by assigning numbers
1 through 10.
1 for least important and 10 for very important
The importance rating is useful for prioritizing
efforts and making trade-off decisions.
The target-value
The target-value column is on the same scale
as the customer competitive assessment (1
for worst, 5 for best )
This column is where the QFD team decides
whether they want to keep their product
unchanged,
improve the product, or
make the product better than the competition.
Scale-up factor
It is the ratio of the target value to the product
rating given in the customer competitive
assessment.
The higher the number, the more effort is
needed.
Sales Point
It tells the QFD team how well a customer
requirement will sell.
The objective here is to promote the best
customer requirement and any remaining
customer requirements that will help in the
sale of the product.
The sales point is a value between 1.0 and
2.0, with 2.0 being the highest.
Absolute weight
It is calculated by multiplying the importance
to customer scale-up factor, and sales point.
After summing all the absolute weights, a
percent and rank for each customer
requirement can be determined.
Can be used as a guide for the planning
phase of the product development.
7) Develop Prioritized Technical
Descriptors.
Block of rows corresponding to each
technical descriptor in the HOQ below the
technical competitive assessment.
It contain degree of technical difficulty, target
value, and absolute and relative weights.
Degree of technical difficulty
It is a degree of technical difficulty for
implementing each technical descriptor.
It helps to evaluate the ability to implement
certain quality improvements.
The degree of difficulty is determined by
rating each technical descriptor from 1 (least
difficult) to 10 (very difficult).


Target value
A target value for each technical descriptor is
also included below the degree of technical
difficulty.
It define values that must be obtained to
achieve the technical descriptor.
Absolute Weight
A popular and easy method for determining
the weights is to assign numerical values to
symbols in the relationship matrix symbols.
It is determined by taking the dot product of
the column in the relationship matrix and the
column for importance to customer.
For instance, for aluminum the absolute
weight is 9 X 8 + 1 X 5 + 9 X 5 + 9 X 2 + 9 X
7 + 3 X 5 + 3 X 3 = 227
Relative weight
It is determined by taking the dot product of
the column in the relationship matrix and the
column for absolute weight in the prioritized
customer requirements.
For instance, for die casting the relative
weight is
3x16+9x8+9x5+3x2+0x18+3x5+9x3=213.
Absolute Weight and Percent
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QFD Process
To refine the technical descriptors further
until an actionable level of detail is achieved.
This action ensures that the target values
are not lost during the QFD process.
The process involves the following phases
1) Product planning
2) Part development
3) Process planning
4) Production planning
Numerous other house of quality planning charts
can be used to improve quality and customer
satisfaction.
Some of these are the following:
1) The demanded quality chart to analyze
competitors to establish selling points.
2) The quality control process chart - nature of
measurement and corrective actions when a problem
arises.
3) The reliability deployment chart - to ensure a product
will perform as desired.
4) FMEA - to determine the failure modes for each part.
5) The technology deployment chart - the advanced or,
more importantly, the proper technologies for the
operations.
FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS
FMEA is an analytical technique that
combines the technology and experience
of people in identifying foreseeable failure
modes of a product or process and
planning for its elimination.
It is a group of activities comprising the
following
Recognize the potential failure of a product or
process.
Identify actions that eliminate / reduce the
potential failure.
Document the process.
Definitions
A problem prevention tool used to identify
weak areas of the process and develop plans
to prevent their occurrence.
A method for evaluating the current control
plan for preventing failures from occurring.
A way to estimate the risk of specific causes
with regard to these failures.

Benefits of FMEA
1) Captures the collective knowledge of a team
2) Improves the quality, reliability, and safety of the
process
3) Logical, structured process for identifying process
areas of concern
4) Reduces process development time and cost
5) Documents and tracks risk reduction activities
6) Helps to identify Critical-To-Quality characteristics
(CTQs)
7) Provides historical records; establishes baseline
8) Helps increase customer satisfaction and safety
Outcomes of FMEA
Combining Six Sigma, change management
and FMEA one can achieve:
1) Better quality and clinical outcomes
2) Safer environment for patients, families and
employees
3) Greater efficiency and reduced costs
4) Stronger leadership capabilities
5) Increased revenue and market share
6) Optimized technology and workflow
FMEA and Team work
A cause creates a failure mode and a failure
mode creates an effect on the customer.
Each team member must understand the
process, sub-processes and interrelations.
If people are confused in this phase, the
process reflects confusion.
Hence FMEA requires teamwork: gathering
information, making evaluations and
implementing changes with accountability.
Types of FMEA
1) Design FMEA
2) Process FMEA
3) System FMEA

Process FMEA
Used to analyze transactional processes.
Analysis of manufacturing and assembly
processes
Analysis of service processes before they are
released to impact the customer (Service
FMEA)
Focus is on failure to produce intended
requirement, a defect.
Failure modes may stem from causes
identified.
System FMEA
A specific category of Design FMEA
Analysis of the global system functions
Used to analyze systems and subsystems in
the early concept and design stages.
(Concept FMEA)
Focuses on potential failure modes
associated with the functionality of a system
caused by design.
Design FMEA
Analysis of products prior to production.
Analysis of machinery and equipment design
before purchase (Equipment FMEA)
Used to analyze component designs.
Focuses on potential failure modes
associated with the functionality of a
component caused by design.
Failure modes may be derived from causes
identified in the System FMEA.
Seven New tools of TQM
1) Affinity diagrams,
2) Interrelationship diagrams,
3) Tree diagrams,
4) Matrix diagram,
5) Matrix data analysis,
6) Arrow diagram,
7) Process decision program chart (PDPC).
1) Affinity Diagram
The affinity diagram is a tool that gathers a large
amount of data and subsequently organizes the
data into groupings based on their natural
interrelationships.
An affinity diagram should be implemented when
Thoughts are too widely dispersed or numerous to
organize.
New solutions are needed to circumvent the more
traditional ways of problem solving.
Support for a solution is essential for successful
implementation.
Steps in creating an Affinity
Diagram

1) Generate ideas - Use the Brainstorming tool to
generate a list of ideas
2) Display ideas - Post the ideas on a chart pack, a
wall, or a table in a random manner
3) Sort ideas into groups - team members physically
sort the cards into groupings
4) Create header cards - A header is an idea that
captures the essential link among the ideas
contained in a group of cards
5) Draw finished diagram
2) Inter-relationship diagram
It is an analysis tool that allows a team to identify the
cause-and-effect relationships among critical issues.
The analysis helps a team distinguish between
issues that serve as drivers and those that are
outcomes.
Used when a team is struggling to understand the
relationships among several issues associated with a
process.
The tool can also be useful in identifying root causes,
even when objective data is unavailable.
Procedure
1) Develop the problem statement
1) issue is presented as a complete sentence
2) It is clear to all team members.
3) Write this statement at the top of a white board or flip chart.
2) Develop issues related to the problem.
1) Issues may be the result of a previous activity such as an
affinity diagram or a brainstorming session, or the team may
need to develop them now.
3) Arrange the issues in a circle.
1) Write the issues on the white board or flip chart.
2) If the issues have already been recorded on sticky notes,
arrange them in a circular pattern.
4) Identify cause-and-effect relationships.
1) no cause/effect relationship
2) a weak cause/effect relationship, or
3) a strong cause/effect relationship.
If the team determines there is a cause/effect
relationship, determine which issue is the cause and
which is the result.
For each relationship pair, draw an arrow from the
cause to the effect.
For strong relationships, use a solid line.
For weaker relationship, draw a dashed line.
Although some relationships may seem evenly
balanced, always determine which is the stronger
influence and draw the arrow in that direction.
Never draw two-headed arrows
Tree Diagram
Also called as systematic diagram, tree analysis,
analytical tree, hierarchy diagram.
The tree diagram starts with one item that branches
into two or more, each of which branch into two or
more, and so on.
It looks like a tree, with trunk and multiple branches.
It is used to break down broad categories into finer
and finer levels of detail.
Developing the tree diagram helps to move our
thinking step by step from generalities to specifics.
When to Use
When an issue is known in broad generalities
and you must move to specific objective.
When developing actions to carry out a
solution.
When analyzing processes in detail.
When probing for the root cause of a
problem.
When evaluating several potential solutions.
As a communication tool, to explain details to
others.
Procedure
Develop a statement of the goal, project,
plan, problem or whatever is being studied.
Write it at the top (for a vertical tree) or far left
(for a horizontal tree)
Ask a question that will lead you to the next
level of detail.
Brainstorm all possible answers.
If an affinity diagram or relationship diagram
has been done previously, ideas may be
taken from there.
Write each idea in a line below (for a vertical
tree) or to the right of (for a horizontal tree)
the first statement.
Continue to turn each new idea into a subject
statement and ask the question.
Do not stop until you reach fundamental
elements: specific actions that can be carried
out,
Matrix Diagram / Matrix Chart
The matrix diagram shows the relationship
between two, three or four groups of
information.
It also can give information about the
relationship, such as its strength, the roles
played by various individuals or
measurements.
Six differently shaped matrices are possible:
L, T, Y, X, C and roof-shaped, depending on
how many groups must be compared.
L-shaped matrix
This L-shaped matrix summarizes customers
requirements.
The team placed numbers in the boxes to
show numerical specifications and used
check marks to show choice of packaging.
The L-shaped matrix actually forms an
upside-down L.
This is the most basic and most common
matrix format.
T-shaped matrix
This T-shaped matrix relates product models
(group A) to their manufacturing locations
(group B) and to their customers (group C).
Examining the matrix in different ways reveals
different information.
Y-shaped matrix
It shows the relationships between customer
requirements, internal process metrics and
the departments involved.
Symbols show the strength of the
relationships
The matrix tells an interesting story about on-
time delivery.
The distribution department is assigned
primary responsibility for that customer
requirement.
C-Shaped Matrix
C means cube.
Because this matrix is three-dimensional
It is difficult to draw and infrequently used.
If it is important to compare three groups
simultaneously.