Unit 5: Trends and Bonding

Valance electrons: available electrons to be lost,

gained, or shared in the formation of compounds
Ionic Bond: losing or gaining electrons to form a
bond between ions, creating a neutral compound
Ion: an atom or group of bonded atoms that has a
positive or negative charge.
Cation: When metals lose electrons to form positive
ions
Anion: When non-metals gain electrons to form
negative ions.
Covalent Bond: sharing of electrons to form neutral
compounds



Charges on Periodic Table
+1
+2 +3
0
-1 -2 -3
+/-4
The Periodic Law
Mendeleev: created the first periodic table to relate the
properties of elements and arranged them according to
atomic mass
Problems: (1) Most elements could be arranged in
order of increasing atomic mass but a few could not?
(2) What was the reason for chemical periodicity?
Mosely: arranged elements based on atomic number
Periodic Law: the physical and chemical properties of
the elements are periodic functions of their atomic
number
Periodic Table: an arrangement of elements in order of
atomic number so that elements with similar
properties fall into the same group or column.
s-Block Elements: Groups 1 &2
group 1 elements are more reactive than group 2
because it is easier to remove 1 electron rather than 2
Alkali metals: elements of group 1, highly reactive
Alkaline-Earth metals: elements of group 2, very
reactive
d-Block Elements: Group 3-12.
Transition elements that are typically less reactive than
s-block elements
p-block elements: Groups 13-18
properties vary greatly, metals, non-metals, metalloids
Halogens: group 17 elements, most reactive non-metals
Ability to react is based on them having 7 electrons in
outer shell, (they want 8 to be stable)
Noble Gases: group 18 elements, stable and unreactive.
They already have 8 valence e-
f-block elements: Lanthanides and Actinides
Lanthanides: shiny metals similar in reactivity to group 2
Actinides: all but first four are man made in laboratories
(1) Atomic radius - one-half the distance between the
nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together.

r = d/2

Period: AR decreases as you go across a period.
(leaving noble gases out of it)
More e- in an energy level, the smaller it is,
because of the increased attraction of the negative
to the positive nucleus.
Group: AR increases as you go down a group.
- adding extra layers of electrons- more energy levels

Trends in Periodic Table
Atomic Radius
S
M
L
(2) Ionic Radius:
Ion: an atom that has a positive or negative charge
Cation: a positive ion, from loss of electrons
decreases atomic radius b/c less electrons (energy
level)
Anion: negative ion, from addition of electrons
increase atomic radius, increases electron repulsion
Metals tend to form cations
Non-metals tend to form anions
Period: decreases across a period (like atomic
radius)
Group: increases down a group (like atomic
radius)

Ionic Radius
S
M
L
(3)Ionization Energy - amount of energy required to remove
the outermost electron from a neutral atom
-to make positive ions
The energy you need to put into an atom to take away an
electron. (give and take) They give you an e- because you
gave them energy
Ionization: the formation of an ion
Period: IE increases as you go across a period
When elements are closer to having a full octet, they do
not want to give up an electron, so IE is much higher
Group: IE decreases as you go down a group. Or increases
as you go up a group
it is easier to remove the electrons from outer energy
levels because they are farther from the positive
nucleus and thus less pull by the nucleus
Ionization Energy
S
M
L
(4) Electron Affinity: the energy change that occurs when
an electron is acquired by a neutral atom
-to make negative ions
The energy given/ released when you add an electron to
an atom (give and take)
They give you energy because you give them an e-
love of electrons
Most atoms release energy when they acquire an
electron, A + e- A- + energy
Period: increases as you go across, but it is negative
energy because the atom is releasing it. The more they
want electrons the more they will pay for it in energy,
thus giving more energy
Group: decrease as you go down because electrons add
with greater difficulty going down a group, because of
increased atomic radius. They dont want e- so they
wont pay much for it.
Non-metals: Some atoms want electrons, so it is easy to
give them one and they are grateful and give you
energy in return. So they release energy (negative E)


Metals: Some atoms do not want electrons, so you have
to force the electron onto the atom by also using/giving
energy. So they absorb energy (positive E)
Electron Affinity
S
M
L
(5) Electronegativity: an atom's ability to grab another
atom's electrons (ability to attract electrons)
Occurs in covalent bonding, when electrons are shared
Period - increases as you go across a period
Because atoms want electrons more as you go
across
Group - decreases as you go down a group or remain
the same.
Since there are more energy levels the positively
charged nucleus cannot attract the electrons well
enough

Electronegativity
4.0
0.7
Electronegativity
Electronegativity
(6) Reactivity - refers to how likely an atom is to react with
other substances
Metals: the more likely to lose an electronthe more
reactive
Non-metals: the more likely to gain an electron.the more
reactive.
Reactivity
L
L
Non-metals
Metals
Melting Point and Boiling Point
Metals: Decreases as you go down a group
and increases as you go across a period
Non-metals: Increases as you go down a
group. Generally decreases as you go
across a period
S
S
M L
L
Electron Dot Notation: electron configuration
notation in which only the valence electrons of an
atom of a particular element are shown, indicated
by dots placed around the elements symbol.
Remember- orbitals fill with one electron before any
one fills with two electron (Hunds Rule)
Octet Rule: compounds tend to form so that each
atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has
a full octet in its highest occupied energy level
When electrons are shared, orbitals are overlapped.
To form a bond: release energy
To break a bond: absorb energy, it requires energy
BONDING:
Electron-dot can be used to represent molecules:


Unshared Pair (lone pair): pair of electrons that is not
involved in bonding and that belongs exclusively to
one atom. (not bonded)
Lewis Structures: ( F F )
dot-pairs or dashes between two atomic symbols represent
electron pairs in covalent bonds
dots adjacent to only one atomic symbol represent unshared
electrons
Two Types of Compounds
There are two ways to achieve a full octet to become
stable- Ionic bonding or Covalent Bonding
1) Ionic compounds: result from ionic bonding
Metals and Non-metals combine
composed of positive and negative ions that are
combined so that the numbers of positive and
negative charges are equal
group 1or 2 want to give electrons away and group 16
or 17 want to take electrons, so valence electrons are
transferred between atoms upon collision.
All metals can combine with a non-metal to form
Ionic bonds through electron transfer.
Show the transfer with charges!
Positive ions- lose electrons
Negative ions- gain electrons



Forces that hold ions together is very strong
Ca (+2) and F (-1) give you CaF
2
(1-to-2 ratio)
Electron-Dot:

Ca F
2
:
Na
2
O:
What are Ionic compounds like?:
salt, like ocean water.
Strong and brittle like egg shells, once you crack the
shell it all falls to pieces.
3-D, tightly bound structure, crystal structure



most ionic compounds exist as crystalline solids
Number line: -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
N O F Ne Li Be B C
Ionic bonds are stronger than covalent bonds.

2) Covalent Compounds: when electrons are shared
Bonding between Non-metals and Non-metals
when neither atom wants to give up electrons fully
Hydrogen always forms covalent bonds because a
Hydrogen cant lose its only electron by transfer so it
must share
H
2
O:


covalent bond: atoms share electrons (no ions)
molecule: neutral group of atoms held together by
covalent bonds
What are Covalent Compounds like?:
In a purely covalent bond, the shared electrons are
owned equally.
Bonds within covalent compounds are strong, but
attraction between molecules are weak, so they
will break apart into molecules easily.
Small difference in electronegativity, so they must
be close together on the periodic chart.
Electrons are shared, so dont write charges!
CO
2

[NH
4
]
+1

More than two electrons can be shared CO
2



Steps for Covalent Structures
1) Cross structure (carbon in middle-symmetrical)
2) Give them what they want (8 e-, except H)
3) Count what they want
4) Determine how many valence electrons they will
bring to the compound (allowed)
5) Remove the difference in pairs of e-, then move
a pair from the atom next to it, to be shared
between them
6) Check- count total, and make sure that none
have more than 8
Ionic: MgCl
2


Covalent: CH
2
S
Want: 14e-
C: 4e-
H:1e- x 2= 2e-
S: 6e-
Allowed: 12e-
Single Bond: covalent bond produced by the sharing of
one pair of electrons between two atoms.

CH
3
I
Double Bond: covalent bond produced by sharing of
two pairs of electrons between two atoms.



Triple Bond: covalent bond produced by sharing of
three pairs of electrons between two atoms.
Multiple Bonds: double or triple bonds.
Bond Strength: Triple > Double > Single Bond
Energies: Triple > Double > Single
Bond Length: Single > Double > Triple
So Triple bonds are strongest, so they require more
energy to break, but they are the shortest.
Resonance Structures:
Some molecules cannot be represented by a single
Lewis Structure. One such molecule is Ozone (O
3
)

This is called Resonance and the different Lewis
structures are called resonance structures. To indicate
resonance a double-headed arrow is placed in between

Polar Covalent: have partial charges
d+ represents a partial positive charge
d- represents a partial negative charge
HCl: Hydrogen and Chlorine.
Chlorine is more electronegative so when sharing
electrons is attracts electrons more, so it is partially
negative
Hydrogen wants electrons less so partial positive

Non Polar Covalent : two elements with similar desire
for electrons so has NO partial charges, because of
equal sharing, usually gases


Overall..
Like dissolves Like: so charged ions and molecules
will dissolve each other and not those without charges.
Ionic- give and take- transfer of e-, thus full charges


Polar Covalent- must share, but desire for e- is slightly
different, so unequal sharing and partial charges


Non-polar Covalent- same desire for e-, so equal
sharing and no charges

Ionic vs. Covalent
Elements combine to form either ions or molecules.
Properties of Ionic Compounds:
- Physical: strong, hard, brittle, well organized, tightly
bound, 3-D crystal structures
- takes a lot of energy to break bonds
- tend to dissolve in water (like salt)
- electrolytes: any compound that conducts electricity
- large difference in electronegativity
- stronger compounds
- higher melting points
- Ex: salt, egg shells
Ionic vs. Covalent
Properties of Covalent Compounds:
- Molecules held together by strong covalent bonds
- strong bonds within molecules, but a weak bond that
holds one molecule to another.
- Polar : liquids or soft solids that dont conduct
electricity (sugar)
- small difference in electronegativity
- weak compounds
- low melting points
-Non-Polar: gases that dont conduct electricity
- almost no difference in electronegativity
- weak compounds
- lowest melting points
-Ex: Candles, plastics, crayons, diamonds


Molecular Geometry
Properties of molecules depend on bonding & geometry
Molecular polarity: uneven distribution of molecular
charges
VSEPR Theory: (used to predict geometry) states that
repulsion between valance electrons surrounding an
atom causes them to be oriented as far apart as possible.
Bond Angles :
AB
2
(2 or 3 atoms) AB
3
(4 atoms) AB
4
(5 atoms)
Linear:
- AB or AB
2

- Example: HCl or CO
2
- 0 lone pairs of e-
- 2 atoms bonded to the central atom

Bent or Angular:
- AB
2
(E)
- Example: SnCl
2
- 1 lone pair of e-
- 2 atoms bonded to the central atom

Trigonal Planar:
- AB
3

- Example: BF
3
- 0 lone pairs of e-
- 3 atoms bonded to the central atom

Tetrahedral:
- AB
4

- Example: CH
4
- 0 lone pair of e-
- 4 atoms bonded to the central atom

Trigonal Pyramidal:
- AB
3
(E)
- Example: NH
3
- 1 lone pairs of e-
- 3 atoms bonded to the central atom

Bent or Angular:
- AB
2
(E
2
)


- Example: H
2
O

- 2 lone pair of e-
- 2 atoms bonded to the central atom

Trigonal Bipyramidal:
- AB
5

- Example: PCl
5
- 0 lone pairs of e-
- 5 atoms bonded to the central atom

Octehedral:
- AB
6

- Example: SF
6
- 0 lone pair of e-
- 6 atoms bonded to the central atom

Bond Energies and Heats of Reaction (DH)
Bond Energy is the energy required to break a chemical bond.
Tabulated values (Table 6-1) are average bond energies in units
of kJ / mole.
Bond-breaking is endothermic, bond-making is exothermic.
DH for a reaction can be estimated from bond energies as follows.
(Counting ALL bond energies as positive values!)
DH BE (bonds broken) - BE (bonds formed)
Problem: Use data in Table 6-1 to estimate DH for the reaction.
CH2=CH2 + H2O CH3-CH2-OH
Bonds Broken Bonds Formed
C=C 612 C-C 348
H-O 463 C-H 412
= 1,075 C-O 360
= 1,120
DH 1,075 - 1,120 - 45 kJ/mole