Mass, Force, and Torque

Measurement
Mass (Weight) Measurement
The mass of a body is always quantified
in terms of a measurement of the weight
of the body, this being the downward
force exerted by the body when it is
subject to gravity. Three methods are
used to measure this force:
The first method of measuring the downward
force exerted by a mass subject to gravity
involves the use of a load cell. The load cell
measures the downward force F, and then the
mass M is calculated from the equation:

M = F/g

where g is acceleration due to gravity
The second method of measuring mass is
to use a spring balance. This also
measures the downward force when the
measured mass is subject to gravity.
Hence, as in the case of load cells, the
mass value can only be calculated exactly
if the value of g is known exactly. Like a
load cell, the spring balance is also a
deflection-type instrument and so is easy
to use.
The final method of measuring mass is to
use some form of mass balance instrument.
These provide an absolute measurement, as
they compare the gravitational force on the
mass being measured with the gravitational
force on a standard mass. Because the same
gravitational force is applied to both
masses, the exact value of g is immaterial.
However, being a null-type instrument, any
form of balance is tedious to use.
Mass-measuring instruments
1. Load Cell
It is a passive
transducer or sensor
which converts
applied force into
electrical signals.
They are also
referred to as load
transducers.
Load cells use different operating principles:
Based on fluid pressure

Based on elasticity

Based on magnetostriction effect or
piezoelectric effect
Common types of load cells:
Electronic Load Cell (Electronic
Balance)
- It is now the preferred type of load cell
in most applications. Within an electronic
load cell, the gravitational force on the
body being measured is applied to an
elastic element.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Load Cells
- It translate mass measurement into a
pressure measurement task, although
they are now less common than the
electronic load cell.
Intelligent Load Cells
- It is formed by adding a microprocessor
to a standard cell. This brings no
improvement in accuracy because the
load cell is already a very accurate
device.
The term load cell means strain gage-
based load cells. The reason behind the
wide adoption of strain gage-based load
cells is their characteristics:
Highly precise and linear measurements
Little influence due to temperature
changes
Small size compared with other types of
load cells
Long operating life due to lack of moving
parts or any parts that generate friction
Ease in production due to small number of
components
Excellent fatigue characteristics

Load cells are used in several types of
measuring instruments such as universal
testing machines.
2. Mass Balance (Weighing) Instruments
It is based on comparing the
gravitational force on the measured mass
with the gravitational force on another
body of known mass. This principle of
mass measurement is known commonly
as weighing and is used in instruments
such as the beam balance, weigh beam,
pendulum scale, and electromagnetic
balance.
Beam balance (equal arm balance)
It is a balance
consisting of a lever
with two equal arms
and a pan
suspended from
each arm. It is
mostly useful in
qualitative chemical
analysis.
Weigh beam
It is a kind of large
steelyard for
weighing
merchandise. It is
also
called weighmaster's
beam.

Pendulum scale
Pendulum type
scales do not use
springs. This design
uses pendulums and
operates as a
balance and is
unaffected by
differences in
gravity.
3. Spring balance
It is an apparatus that
simply a spring fixed
at one end with a hook
to attach an object at
the other. It works by
Hookes Law, which
states that the force
needed to extend a
spring is proportional
to the distance that
spring is extended from
its rest position.
Mass Calibration
The primary requirement in mass calibration is
maintenance of a set of standard masses
applied to the mass sensor being calibrated.
Provided that this set of standard masses is
protected from damage, there is little reason for
the value of the masses to change. Despite this,
values of the masses must be checked at
prescribed intervals, typically annually, in order
to maintain the traceability of the calibration to
reference standards.
Force Measurement
This is concerned with the measurement of
horizontal forces that either stretch or
compress the body that they are applied to
according to the direction of the force with
respect to the body. If a force of magnitude,
F, is applied to a body of mass, M, the body
will accelerate at a rate, A, according to the
equation:
F = MA
The standard unit of force is the Newton
One way of measuring an unknown force is
therefore to measure acceleration when it is
applied to a body of known mass. An
alternative technique is to measure the
variation in the resonant frequency of a
vibrating wire as it is tensioned by an
applied force. Finally, forms of load cells
that deform in the horizontal direction
when horizontal forces are applied can also
be used as force sensors.
1. Use of Accelerometers
It is a device that
measures proper
acceleration. The
proper acceleration
measured by an
accelerometer is not
necessarily the
coordinate
acceleration (rate of
change of velocity).
2. Vibrating Wire Sensor
It measures force (a
mechanical load)
using a wire that
vibrates at a high
frequency.
It consists of a wire that is kept vibrating at
its resonant frequency by a variable-
frequency oscillator. The resonant frequency
of a wire under tension is given by:
F = (0.5/L){(M/T)}
where M is the mass per unit length of the
wire, L is the length of the wire, and T is the
tension due to the applied force, F. Thus,
measurement of the output frequency of
the oscillator allows the force applied to the
wire to be calculated.
Force Sensor Calibration
Force sensors are calibrated using special
machines that apply a set of known force
values to the sensor. The machines involved
are very large and expensive. For this reason,
force sensor calibration is normally devolved
to either specialist calibration companies or
manufacturers of the measurement devices
being calibrated, who will give advice about
the frequency of calibration necessary to
maintain the trace ability of measurements
to national reference standards.
Torque Measurement
Torque, moment or moment of force is
the tendency of a force to rotate an
object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot.
Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque
can be thought of as a twist to an object.
Mathematically, torque is defined as the
cross product of the lever-arm distance
and force, which tends to produce
rotation.
1. Measurement of Induced Strain
The method involves
bonding four strain
gauges onto a shaft
as shown in Figure,
where the strain
gauges are arranged
in a d.c. bridge
circuit.
The output from the bridge circuit is a
function of the strain in the shaft and
hence of the torque applied. It is very
important that positioning of the strain
gauges on the shaft is precise, and the
difficulty in achieving this makes the
instrument relatively expensive. This
technique is ideal for measuring the
stalled torque in a shaft before rotation
commences.
2. Optical Torque Measurement
Optical techniques for
torque measurement
have become
available recently
with the development
of laser diodes and
fiber-optic light
transmission systems.
One such system is
shown in Figure.
Two black-and-white striped wheels are
mounted at either end of the rotating
shaft and are in alignment when no
torque is applied to the shaft. Light from
a laser diode light source is directed by a
pair of fiber-optic cables onto the wheels.
The rotation of the wheels causes pulses
of reflected light, which are transmitted
back to a receiver by a second pair of
fiber-optic cables.
3. Reaction Forces in Shaft Bearings
The magnitude of the
transmitted torque
can be measured by
cradling either the
power source or the
power absorber end of
the shaft in bearings,
and then measuring
the reaction force, F,
and the arm length, L,
as shown in Figure
The torque is then calculated as the
simple product, FL. Pendulum scales are
used very
commonly for measuring the reaction
force. Inherent errors in the method are
bearing friction and windage torques.
This technique is no longer in common
use.
4. Prony Brake
The de Prony Brake is a simple device
invented by Gaspard de Prony to measure
the torque produced by an engine. The term
"brake horsepower" is one measurement
of power derived from this method of
measuring torque. (Power is calculated by
multiplying torque by rotational speed.)
Essentially the
measurement is
made by wrapping
a cord or belt
around the output
shaft of the engine
and measuring the
force transferred to
the belt
through friction.
Calibration of Torque Measuring Systems
Special machines are required for torque
measurement system calibration that can
apply accurately known torque values to
the system being calibrated. Such
machines are very expensive. It is
therefore normal to use the services of
specialist calibration companies or to use
similar services provided by the
manufacturer of the torque
measurement system.