SENSORS

INTERFACING
Sensors to ADC
Sensors Output span rarely fit input span of
ADC
Offset (a) require level shifting
Unequal span (b) require amplification
Both (c) Require both level shift and
amplification
An OpAmp Level shift and amplify simultaneously
Interfacing components
OPAMP
Filters
Comparators
ADC
Voltage References

Op-amp Characteristics
High Input resistance
Low Output resistance
Ability to drive capacitive load
Low input offset voltage
Low input bias current
Very high open loop gain
High common mode rejection ratio

OPAMP classification criteria
Precision opamp
Single/dual supply opamp
Single ended/differential opamp
High Bandwidth opamp
Rail to rail IO opamp
Open loop condition

Unity gain Voltage follower
Provide impedance conversion from high level
to low level
A follower design should have following
characteristics
For current generating sensors input bias
current of opamp should be at least hundred time
smaller than sensors current
Input offset voltage should be smaller
than required LSB



Instrumentation Amplifier
Three opamp IA configuration
A IA amplifies the difference between V+ and
V-
Instrumentation Amplifiers
IA are available as monolithic ICs
Fixed gain range
Easy to set desired gain using a single resistor
Very high CMRR of the order of 100db and
more

Filters
To remove unwanted signal components in the
input signal
Analog Filters
Passive filters
Designed using passive R,L,C components
Simple to design 1
st
order filters
Active filters
Based on active component like transistors or opamp
Possible to amplify signal of interest
Digital Filters

11
Filter Response
Characteristics
Av
Butterworth
Bessel
Chebyshev
f
12
Categories of Filters
-3dB
{
f
2
f
A
v(dB)
-3dB
{
f
1
f
A
v(dB)
Low-pass response
High-pass response
Low Pass Filters:
pass all frequencies from dc
up to the upper cutoff
frequency.
High Pass Filters:
pass all frequencies that are
above its lower cutoff
frequency
13
Categories of Filters
-3dB
{
f
2
f
A
v(dB)
f
1
-3dB
{
f
f
2
f
1
A
v(dB)
Band Pass Response Band Stop Response
Band Pass Filters:
pass only the frequencies
that fall between its values
of the lower and upper
cutoff frequencies.
Band Stop (Notch) Filters:
eliminate all signals within
the stop band while passing
all frequencies outside this
band.
14
Single-Pole Low/High-Pass
Filter
v
out
-
+
+V
-V
R
1
R
f1
R
f2
C
1
v
in
v
out
-
+
+V
-V
R
1
R
f1
R
f2
C
1
v
in
Low Pass Filter
High Pass Filter
DAC
Is a circuit whose output depend on digital input
and associated reference voltage
DAC can be implemented using PWM
for PWM
Vavg=(Ton/T) X Vlh
PWM output filtered using RC filter
15
ADC Essentials
Basic I/O Relationship
ADC is Rationing
System
x = Analog input /
Reference
Fraction: 0 ~ 1
n bits ADC
Number of discrete output
level : 2
n
Quantum
LSB size
Q = LSB = FS / 2
n
Quantization Error
1/2 LSB
Reduced by increasing n
16
Conversion PARAMETERS
Conversion Time
Required time (tc) before the converter can provide valid
output data
Input voltage change during the conversion process
introduces an undesirable uncertainty
Full conversion accuracy is realized only if this uncertainty is
kept low below the converters resolution
Converter Resolution
The smallest change required in the analog input of an ADC to
change its output code by one level
Converter Accuracy
The difference between the actual input voltage and the full-
scale weighted equivalent of the binary output code
Maximum sum of all converter errors including quantization
error
17
Converting bipolar to unipolar
Using unipolar converter
when input signal is bipolar
Scaling down the
input
Adding an offset
Bipolar Converter
If polarity
information in output
is desired
Bipolar input range
Typically, 0 ~ 5V
Bipolar Output
2s Complement
Offset Binary
Sign Magnitude


Input signal is scaled and an offset
is added
18
scaled
Add
offset
Outputs and Analog Reference
Signal
I/O of typical ADC







ADC output
Number of bits
8 and 12 bits are typical
10, 14, 16 bits also
available
Errors in reference signal
From
Initial Adjustment
Drift with time and
temperature
Cause
Gain error in Transfer
characteristics
To realize full accuracy of ADC
Precise and stable
reference is crucial
Typically, precision IC voltage
reference is used
5ppm/C ~ 100ppm/C
19
Control Signals
Start
From CPU
Initiate the conversion
process
BUSY / EOC
To CPU
Conversion is in
progress
0=Busy: In progress
1=EOC: End of
Conversion
HBE / LBE
From CPU
To read Output word after
EOC
HBE
High Byte Enable
LBE
Low Byte Enable
20
A/D Conversion Techniques
Counter or Tracking ADC
Successive Approximation ADC
Most Commonly Used
Dual Slop Integrating ADC
Voltage to Frequency ADC
Parallel or Flash ADC
Fast Conversion
21
Counter Type ADC
Block diagram







Suitable for low frequency
high resolution conversion
Operation
Reset and Start Counter
DAC convert Digital output
of Counter to Analog
signal
Compare Analog input and
Output of DAC
Vi < V
DAC
Continue counting
Vi = V
DAC
Stop counting
Digital Output = Output of
Counter
Disadvantage
Conversion time is varied
2
n
Clock Period for Full Scale
input
22
Tracking Type ADC
Tracking or Servo Type
Using Up/Down
Counter to track input
signal continuously
For slow varying input
Advantage
There output is continuously
available
23
Successive Approximation
ADC
Most Commonly used in
medium to high speed
Converters
Based on approximating the
input signal with binary code
and then successively
revising this approximation
until best approximation is
achieved
SAR(Successive
Approximation Register)
holds the current binary value
Block Diagram








24
Successive Approximation
ADC
Circuit waveform






Logic Flow
Conversion Time
n clock for n-bit ADC
Fixed conversion time
Serial Output is easily
generated
Bit decision are made in
serial order
25
Parallel or Flash ADC
Very High speed conversion
Up to 100MHz for 8 bit
resolution
Video, Radar, Digital
Oscilloscope
Single Step Conversion
2
n
1 comparator
Precision Resistive
Network
Encoder
Resolution is limited
Large number of
comparator in IC

26
Type of ADCs
ADC Resolution Comparison
0 5 10 15 20 25
Sigma-Delta
Successive Approx
Flash
Dual Slope
Resolution (Bits)
Type Speed (relative) Cost (relative)
Dual Slope Slow Med
Flash Very Fast High
Successive Appox Medium Fast Low
Sigma-Delta Slow Low