Radio Propagation Theory and Models

ISSUE1.0
Wireless Curriculum
Development Section
Course objectives
Master the basic knowledge about radio propagation
theory.
Master the functions of the propagation models and
memorize the names and application ranges of several
common models.
Understand the basic principles of site address
selection and antenna model selection.
After studying this course, you should be able to:
Course contents
Chapter 1 Radio Propagation Theory
Chapter 2 Propagation Models
Chapter 3 Site Selection and Antenna Model Selection
300-3000GHz
EHF Extremely High
Frequency
30-300GHz
SHF Super High Frequency 3-30GHz
UHF Ultra High Frequency 300-3000MHz
VHF Very High Frequency 30-300MHz
HF High Frequency 3-30MHz
MF Medium Frequency 300-3000KHz
LF Low Frequency 30-300KHz
VLF Very-low Frequency 3-30KHz
VF Voice Frequency 300-3000Hz
ELF Extremely Low
Frequency
30-300Hz
3-30Hz
Designation Classification Frequency
Basic Principles of Radio Propagation
----Spectrum Division
The frequencies in different frequency bands have different propagation
characteristics.
Direct wave and ground-reflected wave
(Most common propagation form)
Tropospheric wave
(A highly random propagation form)
Mountain-diffracted wave
(Source of signals in shadow area)
Ionospheric wave
(Beyond-the-horizon communication path)
Propagation Path
(1) Building-reflected wave
(2) Diffracted wave
(3) Direct wave
(4) Ground-reflected wave
Propagation Path
Distance (m)
Receiver Power (dBm)
10 20 30
-20
-40
-60
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
Radio Propagation Environment
Two Kinds of Fading
Radio Propagation Environment
Resistance to signal fast fading
Time diversity
Symbol interleaving, error detection and error
correction encoding
Space diversity
Adoption of main and diversity antenna for
reception
Frequency diversity
450M broadband communication: frequency
diversity
RAKE reception
Adoption the RAKE receiver for receiving
multiple unrelated multi-paths signals
Measures against fast fading ---- diversity
Radio Propagation Environment
The radio propagation is influenced by the terrain and artificial
environments. The radio propagation environment directly determines
what propagation mode is to be selected.
Major factors influencing the environment
Morphology form (high mountain, hilly ground, flat land and water
area);
Quantity, distribution and material characteristics of the artificial
buildings;
Characteristics of vegetation in the region;
Climate;
Natural and artificial electromagnetic noises.
Artificial environment
Dense Urban ,Urban area, suburb and rural area ,high way
Propagation losses in free space
Ploss=32.4+20lgf
MHz
+20lgd
km
When the frequency is fixed, it can be expressed as:
Ploss=L0+10lgd
=2 path loss slope

Propagation losses in flat area
Ploss

= 10lgd -20lgh
b
- 20lgh
m

=4 path loss slope
h
b
: Height of the BS antenna
h
m
: Height of the MS antenna

Losses in Propagation
Losses in Propagation
Diffraction loss
The electromagnetic wave is diffused all around at the diffraction
point;
The diffracted wave covers all directions except for the
obstruction;
The diffusion loss is the most serious;
The calculation formula is rather complex, which varies with
different diffraction constants.
Losses in Propagation
Penetration loss
The indoor signal depends on the penetration loss of the building;
There is evident differences between signals at the window of the room
and signals in the middle of the room;
The materials of the building have great influence on the penetration loss;
The arrival angle of the electromagnetic wave has great influence on the
penetration loss too.
XdBm WdBm
Penetration loss=X-W=B dB


0 0

0 0
d
D
w1
w2
E1
E2
Reflection and refraction of the electromagnetic wave when it penetrates
the wall.


0 0

0 0
d
D
w1
w2
E1
E2
XdBm WdBm
Losses in Propagation

Penetration loss
The indoor signal depends on the penetration loss of the building.
Signal beside the indoor window differs greatly from that in the central part
of the room.
The building materials have a great impact on the penetration loss.
The incident angle of the electromagnetic wave has a great impact on the
penetration loss.
Penetration loss =X-W=B dB
The reflection and refraction of the electromagnetic wave during the
penetration of the wall
14 ~ 20 6 ~ 10 2 ~ 4 0 ~ 1 Reflection loss (dB)
0.1 ~ 0.2 0.3 ~ 0.5 0.6 ~ 0.8 0.9~1 Equivalent ground reflection factor
Cities, mountain areas and forests Fields

Paddy fields Water surfaces Ground property
Losses in Propagation
Reflection loss
What distribution is fast fading subject to?

What distribution is slow fading subject to
Rayleigh distribution

Logarithmic normal distribution
QUESTION
Propagation Models
The propagation model is used in prediction of influence on
path loss in the radio wave propagation by the terrain and
artificial environments;
The propagation model is the foundation of the coverage
planning. A good model can ensure the precision of the
planning;
The radio propagation model is influenced by the working
frequency of the system. Different propagation models have
different working frequency ranges. Moreover, there are
differences between indoor propagation model and outdoor
propagation model;
When using the propagation model, please pay attention to
the unit of each parameter.
The typical models are set up by scientists gradually based on the CW test data.
Several Common Propagation Models
Model

Application range

Okumura-Hata

Applicable to the 150-1500 MHz macrocell prediction

Cost231-Hata

Applicable to the 1500-2000 MHz macrocell prediction

Walfish-Ikegami

Applicable to prediction in the 800-2000MHz urban area or
dense urban area environments
Keenan-Motley

Applicable to the 800-2000MHz indoor environment prediction

K arameter Models

Applicable to the 800-2000MHz macrocell prediction

Propagation Models
Okumura-Hata Model
Propagation Models
m
h b b p
A d h h f L log ) log 55 . 6 9 . 44 ( log 82 . 13 log 16 . 26 55 . 69
Lp
f
b
h
m
h
d
m
h
A
Path loss (dB)
BS antenna height (m)
MS antenna height (m)
Carrier frequency (MHz)
Distance between the BS and MS
(Km)
MS antenna correction factor (dB)
) 8 . 0 log 56 . 1 ( ) 7 . 0 log 1 . 1 ( f h f A
m h
m
97 . 4 ) 75 . 11 (log 2 . 3
2

m h
h A
m
Middle or small-size cities:
Big cities:
The frequency range is 150MHz to 1500MHz.
Okumura-Hata Model
Propagation Models
In urban areas, the standard model can be modified as:


In rural areas (open country), the model can be modified as:


In rural areas (quasi open country), the model can be modified as:


Cost231-Hata Model
Propagation Models
m h b b p
C A d h h f L
m
log ) log 55 . 6 9 . 44 ( log 82 . 13 log 9 . 33 3 . 46
m
C
m
C 0dB Large-size cities or central areas of the suburbs
3dB Big cities
The frequency range is 1500MHz to 2000MHz.
Propagation Models
The general planning software model expressions are as follows:
Lp=K1 + K2lgd + K3(hm) + K4lg(hm) + K5lg(Heff) + K6lg(Heff)lgd
+K7diffn+ Kclutter
K1-Constant related with the frequency (MHz); K2-Constant related to the distance (km);
K3, K4-MS antenna height (m) correction factor; K5, K6-BS antenna height (m) correction factor;
K7-Diffraction correction factor; Kclutter-Ground fading correction factor;
d-Distance between the BS and MS (km); hm, Heff-Valid heights of the MS antenna and BS
antenna (m)
The initial K parameter is converted from the classical model.
Propagation Models
In the following table, some K values and fading values in the wave
propagation analysis in a medium-size city are given.
16 High Building
5 Dense urban
0 Urban
-2.50 Suburban
-2.50 Parallel_Low_Buildings
-2.90 Village
5.00 Industrial & Commercial Areas
13.00 Forest
-1.00 Rangeland
-2.00 Open Areas
-3.00 Wetland
-3.00 Inland Water
Clutter attenuation value
-0.8 K7
-6.55 K6
-13.82 K5
0.00 K4
-2.49/800MHz Urban,-2.93/2000MHz Urban
0/800MHz Large city,-2.93/2000MHz Large city
K3
44.90 K2
149/800MHz Urban ,162.5/2000MHz Urban
145/800MHz Large city,165.5/2000MHz Large city
K1
Parameter v alue K parameter name
Model Correction - CW Test
To obtain the radio propagation model in compliance with the actual environment and increase the
correctness of the coverage prediction so as to lay a good foundation for the network planning, it is
necessary to correct the propagation model for some typical environments.
Select the site and establish an simulated BS;
Select the path and perform drive test to the collected data;
Correct the model using the model correction tool software and obtain
K1, K2, , K
CLUTER
.
Model Correction
Select representative propagation environments, such as dense urban
area, general urban area and suburb
and find some test points. As many as land object types should be
covered.
For each artificial environment, three or more test stations are
preferred so as to remove the influence of the location factors.
Obtain test data at different directions and distances. There should be
multiple test data for the same distance.
The sampling should be in compliance with the Li law: Wavelength: 40;
50 sampling points
Upper limit for the car speed: V
max
=0.8/T
sample

QUESTION
What is the application range of the Okumura-Hata
model?
What is the difference between Okumura-Hata and
Cost231-Hata?
What parameters are the K5 and K6 in the software-
planning model about?
What is the significance of the CW test?
SUMMARY
This chapter introduces the significance of the
propagation model.
It also introduces the parameters and their
experience values of several common propagation
models.
It deals with the significance and method of the
CW test.
Basic principles for site selection
The importance of site selection (>80%)

The order for urban site selection (dense,
general, suburban)

The height of site selection (dense, general,
suburban)

Attention for the barriers ahead (avoiding it
by using the Fresnel zone)

Cell layout and site selection
The concrete principles for site selection:
The site should be put in an ideal place in the regular mesh as much as
possible. Its deviation should be less than one fourth of the base station
radius.
On the condition that the base station layout will not be affected, the
existing devices should be utilized as much as possible, so as to reduce the
cost and shorten the cycle of construction.
Generally, peaks of a high altitude above the sea level (100~300 m higher
than the altitude of the urban area) in the outskirt of a city or in the suburbs
should not be selected. On one hand, this is intended to facilitate the control
of the coverage area; on the other, it reduces the level of difficulty in the
project construction and facilitates maintenance.
Cell layout and site selection
The newly built base station should be located in a place where it can enjoy convenient
transportation, use the mains and occupy little fertile land with a safe environment;
The location should away from the large-power radio transmitter, radar station or other
interference sources;
The location should be far from the forest so that the absorption loss of plant can be
avoided
Attention should be paid to the influence of the signal reflection and time dispersion when
the site is located in the mountainous area, the dense lake area or lake area with steep bank,
a hilly city, or an environment with high metal buildings;
When the base station is located among the buildings in the urban area, the height of the
buildings can be flexibly utilized to fulfill the division of the network hierarchical structure;
When there are relatively few base stations in the early period of network construction,
the sites selected should ensure the good coverage of the key areas;
The physical radiation of the main beam of the antenna along streets, rivers, etc. should
be avoided, so as to avoid the pilot frequency pollution or insular effect resulting from the
wave-guide effect;
The concrete principles for site selection (continued):
Antenna feeder system----feeder
Feeder selection
Feeder loss
450M7/82.7dB/100m5/41.9dB/100m
800M7/84.03dB/100m5/42.98dB/100m
1900M7/86.46dB/100m5/44.77dB/100m
Principles for feeder selection:
450MHzbasically only 7/8 feeder should be selected.
800MHzwhen the feeder length is greater than 80m, 5/4 feeder
should be adopted.
1900MHzwhen the feeder length is greater than 50m, 5/4 feeder
should be adopted.
The curvature of the feeder should not be too great, and the external
conductor should be well grounded.
Major electrical indices of the antenna
Major mechanical indices of the antenna
Antenna input interface
Antenna size
Antenna weight
Wind load
Operating temperature
Humidity requirements
Lightning protection
Three kinds of protection
capabilities
Antenna feeder design----antenna selection
Selection of urban base station antenna
Generally directional antennas with 60~65 horizontal half-power angle should be selected;
Generally 15dBi medium gain antennas should be selected;
It is recommended to select the antenna with a electronic tilt angle (3~6);
Dual polarization antennas are recommended;
Selection of suburban base station antenna
Direction antennas with a 65 or 90 horizontal half-power angle can be selected according
to the actual situation;
Generally 15~18dBi medium and high gain antennas should be selected;
The adoption of the preset tilt angle should be determined according to the specific
situation;
Both dual polarization antennas and vertical polarization antennas can be selected;
Antenna feeder design----antenna selection
Selection of rural base station antenna
90 or 120 directional antennas or omni-directional antennas can be selected according to
the specific situation and requirements.
Generally the gain of the directional antennas selected shall be relatively high (16~18dBi).
The preset tilt antennas generally should not be selected; for the high-altitude site, the zero
filler antennas are preferred.
Vertical polarization antennas are suggested.
Selection of road base station antenna
Generally directional antennas of narrow beam and high gain are selected. Depending the
concrete situation, 8-shaped antennas, omni-directional or deformed omni-directional
antennas can also be selected.
As the road base station requires a long coverage distance, generally the preset tilt
antennas should not be selected.
Vertical polarization antennas are recommended.
The front-to-back ratio of the selected directional antenna should not be too high.
Antenna design-antenna height
Principles for antenna height design
Antennas in different cells of the same base station may be of different heights.
This may be limited by the installation space in a specific direction, or due to the
requirements of the cell planning.
For urban areas that are relatively even, generally the valid height of the antenna is
about 25m.
The height of the antennas in the suburban base station can be increased
appropriately. Generally it is about 40 m.
If the antennas are too high, the coverage power level around the antennas will be
lowered (nicknamed black under the tower), especially for the omni-directional
antennas.
Moreover, if the antennas are too high, problems such as serious unexpected
coverage and pilot solution will occur, which will affect the network quality.
Antenna design- Azimuth
Principles for antenna azimuth design
The azimuths of the three sectors of the urban base stations should be kept as consistent
as possible, and fine adjustment should be made locally. As for the junction between the
urban and suburban parts, arterial road, suburban isolated sites, etc., the antenna azimuth
can be adjusted according to the key coverage objects.
The main beam of the antenna should be directed to the area of high traffic density, so as
to increase the signal strength in that area and improve the conversation quality.
The antenna cross-coverage depth between adjacent urban sectors should not exceed 10%.
The cross-coverage depth between adjacent cells in suburban and rural areas should not
be too big, and the included angle between the antenna directions of two adjacent sectors in
the same base station should be no less than 90.
To prevent the unexpected coverage, the main beam of the antenna should avoid being
directed to a straight street in dense urban areas.
Antenna design - tilt
The employment of the antenna tilt technique can effectively control the
coverage area and reduce the system internal interference.
The antenna tilt angle should be determined according to the concrete
situations, so that the interference between intra-frequency cells can be
reduced while the coverage requirements can be met.
In the design of the tilt angle, comprehensive consideration should be given to
such factors as the transmitting power of the base station, the antenna height,
the cell coverage and the radio propagation environment.
Principles for antenna tilt design
The electrical or mechanical mode can be adopted for the antenna beam tilt. The angle of the
electric tilt is related to the antenna type selected and generally is fixed. The angle of the mechanical
tilt can be adjusted; but generally it will not exceed 15 due to the restriction of the installation fittings
and the propagation characteristics of radio signals.
The electric tilt and mechanical tilt produce different surface radiations. When the tilt angles are
small, there is only minor difference; with the increase of the tilt angle, the difference also becomes
more evident.
Antenna design - tilt