Text Book: Introduction to Logic

by Irving M. Copi and Carl Cohen

What is each mans artistic field?
Alonzo, Kurt, Rudolf, and Willard are four
creative artists of great talent. One is a dancer, one
is a painter, one is a singer, and one is a writer,
though not necessarily in that order.
1. Alonzo and Rudolf were in the audience the night the singer made
his debut on the concert stage.
2. Both Kurt and the writer have had their portraits painted by the
painter.
3. The writer*, whose biography of Willard was best-seller, is planning
to write a biography of Alonzo.
4. Alonzo has never heard of Rudolf*.
Solution:
1) both Alonzo and Rudolf couldnt be the singer
2) Kurt is neither writer nor painter
3) Willard and Alonzo are not writers
4) As Rudolf is the writer, hence Alonzo cannot be the painter.
Alonzo Kurt Rudolf Willard
Dancer

X X X
Painter X X X

Singer X

X X
Writer X X

X


Generally, Logic is understood as the science and art of
correct thinking (Cruz, 1995; Bachelor, 1966).
According to Resnik, 1970, Logic is considered a
science for 3 major reasons:

1. as body of certain and proven knowledge,
2. obtained and arranged in a systematic manner,
3. objective and possesses general principles of
argumentation and proof, which can be formulated
precisely and communicated to others.



Logic is the study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning.
There are objective criteria with which correct
reasoning may be defined.
If these criteria are not known, then they cant be used.
The aim of the study of logic is to discover and
make available those criteria that can be used to test
arguments, and to sort good arguments from bad ones.
The word critical often has negative connotations:
critical person-- fault-finder.
criticize -- usually means saying something negative.
critic is someone who is against something.
But the word critical in critical thinking has no
negative connotations at all.
In fact, it is related to the word criteria to mean
thinking that meets high criteria of reasonableness.
Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking
that is focused on deciding what to believe or do.
Critical thinking is skillful, responsible thinking
that is helpful to good judgment
Critical thinking is thinking about your thinking,
while youre thinking, in order to make your
thinking better.
Definition:
A PROPOSITION is a statement in which
anything is affirmed or denied. It asserts
something is or is not the case.

Example:
A dog is an animal or
A dog is not a cat.
It is expressed by what grammarians call a declarative
sentence.
It must be distinguished from a question, exclamation, wish,
and command.
It is raining. (In a given situation.)
Beijing is the capital of China.
But, the following are NOT propositions:
Whos there? (interrogative, question)
La la la la la. (meaningless interjection)
Just do it! (imperative, command)
Yeah, I sorta dunno, whatever... (vague)
Moreover, every proposition is either true or false,
although we may not know the truth or falsity of some
given proposition. E.g. there is life on some other
planet in our galaxy is one whose truth or falsity we do
not know;
Moreover, propositions are independent of a
particular language, e.g.
It is raining. (English)
Esta Iloviendo. (Spanish)
Il pleut. (French)
Es regnet. (German)
Propositions may be simple, like those used in the
preceding examples,
But they may also be compound, containing other
propositions within themselves. E.g.

the Amazon Basin produces roughly 20 percent of
the Earths oxygen, creates much of its own rainfall,
and harbors many unknown species.
With propositions as building blocks, we construct
arguments.
It reflects an assertion (declaration).
It is the set of propositions (premises and conclusion)
In any argument we affirm one proposition (conclusion)
on the basis of some other propositions (premises). E.g.
Ali is ill
He is in hospital
Therefore, he is absent today

In doing this, an inference is drawn.
An inference is the reasoning process expressed by an
argument.
The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that
is affirmed on the basis of the other propositions of
the argument.
Those other propositions, which are affirmed (or
assumed) as providing support for the conclusion, are
the premises of the argument. E.g.

All crimes are violations of the law.
Theft is a crime.
Therefore, theft is a violation of the law.
It is common for the conclusion of an argument to precede the
statement of its premise or premises. E.g.
P1: All mammals have lungs.
P2: All whales are mammals.
C: Therefore, all whales have lungs
Even when premise and conclusion are united in on sentence, the
conclusion of the argument may come first. E.g.
Every law is an evil, for every law is an infraction of liberty.
Although this is only one short sentence, it is an argument
because it contains two propositions, i.e.
the first (every law is an evil) is the conclusion and the second (every law
is an infraction of liberty) is the premise.
However, no single proposition can be an argument, because an
argument is made up of a group of propositions.


Before evaluate an argument, recognize it.
Distinguish argumentative passages in writing/speech.
Doing this assumes, of course, an understanding of the language
of the passage.
However, an argument can be problematic because of the oddity
of its formulation.
Specifically, we may be unsure about which propositions are
serving as its premises and which as its conclusion.
The judgment cannot be made on the basis of the order in which
the propositions appear.
How then shall we proceed?

Arguments contain certain indicator words that provide
clues in identifying premises and conclusion.
Some typical conclusion indicators are:
Therefore; Accordingly; Entails that; Implies that; Thus; We may conclude; It
follows that; Hence; So; Consequently; As a result; We may infer
By process of elimination the other statements in the
argument are the premises. E.g.
Corporate raiders leave their target
corporation with a heavy debt burden and no
increase in productive capacity.
Consequently, corporate raiders are bad for
the business community.

If an argument does not contain a conclusion
indicator, it may contain a premise indicator.
Some typical premise indicators are:
Since; In that; Seeing that; As indicated by; May be inferred from; For the reason
that; Because; As; Inasmuch as; For; Given that
Any statement following one of these indicators
can usually be identified as a premise.
Expectant mothers should never use recreational
drugs, since the use of these drugs can jeopardize the
development of the fetus
Sometimes an argument contains no indicators.
When this occurs, the reader/listener must ask himself/herself such
questions as:
What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others?
What is the arguer trying to prove?
What is the main point in the passage?
The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion.
The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead.
Not only does the national defense depend upon it, but the program will
more than pay for itself in terms of technological spinoffs.
Furthermore, at current funding levels the program cannot fulfill its
anticipated potential.
The conclusion of this argument is the first statement, and all of the
other statements are premises (which are in support of the first).
Hence, the context is very critical in real world.

When the argument is restructured according to logical
principles, however, the conclusion is always listed after the
premises:
P1: The national defense is dependent upon the space
program.
P2: The space program will more than pay for itself in terms
of technological spinoffs.
P3: At current funding levels the space program cannot fulfill
its anticipated potential.
C: The space program deserves increased expenditures in the
years ahead.
Identify the premises and conclusion:
1. Titanium combines readily with oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen, all of which have an adverse effect
on its mechanical properties. As a result, titanium
must be processed in their absence.
P: Titanium combines readily with oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen, all of which have an adverse effect
on its mechanical properties.
C: Titanium must be processes in their absence.
Punishment, when speedy and specific, may suppress undesirable
behavior, but it cannot teach or encourage desirable alternatives.
Therefore, it is crucial to use positive techniques to model and
reinforce appropriate behavior that the person can use in place of the
unacceptable response that has to be suppresses.
P1: Punishment, when speedy and specific, may suppress undesirable
behavior.
P2: Punishment cannot teach or encourage desirable alternatives.
C: It is crucial to use positive techniques to model and reinforce
appropriate behavior that the person can use in place of the
unacceptable response that has to be suppressed.
Since private property helps people define themselves,
since it frees people from mundane cares of daily
subsistence, and since it is finite, no individual should
accumulate so much property that others are prevented
from accumulating the necessities of life.
P1: Private property helps people define themselves.
P2: Private property frees people from mundane care of
daily subsistence.
P3: Private property is finite.
C: No individual should accumulate so much property
that others are prevented from accumulating the
necessities of life.
Which one of the foursome is the best
player?
Mr. Short, his sister, his son, and his daughter
are fond of golf and often play together. The
following statements are true of their foursome:
The best players twin and the worst player are the
opposite sex.
The best player and the worst player are the same
age.