Outline of the unit:

Neurotransmitters
Localization of function
Hormones
Genetic research
Evolutionary psychology

Debate
How does the biological level of analysis
explain behaviour?
Levels of analysis
Micro Level of Analysis - the smallest units of psychological
measure which are within a person (eg. brain waves,
hormones)

Molecular Level of Analysis - units of observable behavior of
a person alone or in a situation (usually small group) (eg.
body language, reaction time)

Molar Level of Analysis - the largest units of psychological
measure of a person or people within the context of a larger
social setting (racism, adolescents across cultures)
Biological Psychologists Use Several
Levels of Analysis
Levels of analysis range from social interaction down to
the molecular level.
Reductionism breaks a system down into its smaller
parts, in order to understand it.

Modern psychologists (goal of IB
psychology) = Interactionist Approach

Interactionist Approach
An approach which does not rely solely on either nature
(biological) or nurture (environment), but adopts a more
holistic picture of human behavior used by modern
psychologists

Bidirectional Relationship
Biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology
Learning Outcomes
Principles:

Brain structure influence behavior & cognitive processes

Brain physiology influences behavior & cognitive processes
Principles of Biological Level of Analysis
1. Behavior can be innate because it is genetically
based (evolution)
2. Animal research can provide insight into
human behavior (significant amount of research
is undertaken using animals)
3. Biological correlated of behavior ((link between
a specific biological factor and a specific behavior)
Principle human
behaviour is innate,
to a greater or lesser
extent inherited
Method
correlational study
Example -
Minnesota twin
study (Bouchard et
al, 1990)
Charles Darwins Theory of Natural Selection (1859) and
Evolutionary Psychology
(Image source: http://darwinday.org/learn-more/about-evolution/)

Principle animal
research informs
understanding of
human behaviour
Method animal
studies
Example
Martinez and
Kesner, 1991
Image source: www.animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/
Principle
biological
correlates of
behaviour
Method study
using brain
scanning
technology
Example
Davidson, 2004
Images from wikimedia creative commons and Flickr creative commons
Communication in the Nervous
System
Communication in the Nervous System
LO # 6 & 7
Dendrites
Cell body
Axo
n
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Cell
body
Dendrites
Axon
(a) Sensory neuron
(b) Motor neuron
(c) Interneuron
Neurotransmission
Action
potential
Vesicles
Neurotransmitters
Receptors for
neurotransmitters
Spreading
wave of
depolarization
DENDRITE
AXON
Synapse
S
y
n
a
p
t
i
c

T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

Drugs and the Synapse
Drugs work by doing one or more of the following to
neurotransmitters:

1. Increasing the synthesis.
2. Causing vesicles to leak.
3. Increasing release.
4. Decreasing reuptake.
5. Blocking the breakdown into inactive
chemical.
6. Directly stimulating or blocking postsynaptic
receptors.
Kasamatsu & Hirai (1990) Monk
Serotonin Study (Serotonin)

Investigate how sensory deprivation affects the brain
Researchers took blood samples before and after their
pilgrimage.
The found increased level of serotonin in the Monks brain.
Especially in the Hypothalamus and Frontal Cortex.
Resulting in hallucination.

Sensory deprivation triggered the release of Serotonin.
Serotonin responsible for Sleep, Arousal level, and Emotions.

Chemical Messengers in the
Nervous System

Types of Neurotransmitters
Serotonin involved in sleep, mood, pain suppression
& sensory perception
a) Deficiencies can lead to mood, anxiety, & sleep
disorders
b) Many antidepressants enhance effect of serotonin
(SSRI)
a) Prozac
b) Paxil
c) These work by preventing the uptake of serotonin
Types of Neurotransmitters
Dopamine emotions, reward
a) Higher than normal levels are found in persons with
schizophrenia
b) Low levels causes Parkinsons disease
L-Dopa helps to increase dopamine for a while
Norepinephrine
Cognitive & emotional functions
a) Too low of level associated with depression
Acetylcholine
a) Low amounts of acetylcholine may play role in
Alzheimer's
b) Involved in muscle action
1) Botulism prevents release of Acetylcholine
2) Curare same effect in preventing release
Types of Neurotransmitters
Types of Neurotransmitters
gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
a) Low levels are associated with anxiety
b) Valium & Xanax increases GABA has calming effect
Glutamate long term memory major excitatory
neurotransmitter found in 90% of neurons
Some BIG caveats!
1. Causation is an issue!
2. Just treating the symptoms
3. Hard to pin down direct relationship between
neurotransmitters & behavior
4. Aspirin can relieve headaches, but headaches are not
caused by lack of aspirin
5. Reductionist


Chemical Messengers in the Nervous
System
Endorphins:

Involved in reducing pain & promoting pleasure
Acts to prolong or shorten the activity of specific
neurotransmitters neuro-modulators
Link between increase in endorphins & pleasures of
social contact (attachment)
May be link to pain reducing effects of acupuncture
Basic information on how the nervous
system works
Included in a lot of Learning Outcomes
Brain
Spinal
cord
Somatic
PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sympathetic
Para-
sympathetic
Autonomic
Spinal reflexes:
Bypasses brain at
first
Nervous System
Central Nervous System
(brain and spinal cord)
Peripheral Nervous System
(neural tissue outside brain and
spinal cord)
Somatic nervous system
(sensory and motor nerves,
voluntary)
Autonomic nervous system
(internal systems,
involuntary)
Sympathetic division
(arousal)
Parasympathetic division
(housekeeping)
The Brain Lateral View

Dr John Harlow
Accident
Quick Recovery
Months later: No longer Gage
Before: capable, efficient, best foreman,
well-balanced mind
After: extravagant, anti-social, liar, grossly
profane
Died 12 years later




Localization of function in the
brain

This is where one section of the brain is
responsible for a specific function.

Brocas Area
an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the
muscle movements involved in speech
Wernickes Area
an area of the left temporal lobe involved in
language comprehension and expression

The Cerebral Cortex
Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left
hemisphere damage either to Brocas area (impairing
speaking) or to Wernickes area (impairing
understanding)

Broca's aphasia: when an individual has problems
producing speech, but is able to understand it.
Wernicke's aphasia: when an individual can produce
speech but has problems understanding it.
Brocas Aphasia
In 1862, showing brain lesions in a stroke patient
who could understand language but could not speak
(could only say "tan"), he demonstrated that the left
frontal lobe was responsible for articulation of
speech.
Sarah Scott - Broca's aphasia case
study
The video on the right is of a British girl from Sarah Scott, who
suffered a stroke at 18 and developed Broca's aphasia as a
result.

There are a series of videos on YouTube, documenting
Sarah's slow recovery over the course of a number of years. It
makes for moving viewing at times, but it is a great example of
the sorts of difficulties that Broca's aphasia can involve.


Wernickes Aphasia
Like Broca, Wernicke 1874 investigated a similar stroke
victim. But this time the patient could speak but made no
sense. The damaged area was around where the temporal
and parietal lobes meet in the posterior part of the left
hemisphere. His findings further revived the localisationist
view.
Wernickes aphasics show deficits in language
comprehension but intact articulation
The Limbic System
Hypothalamus, pituitary,
amygdala, and hippocampus
all deal with basic drives,
emotions, and memory

Hippocampus Memory
processing

Amygdala Aggression
(fight) and fear (flight)

Hypothalamus Hunger,
thirst, body temperature,
pleasure; regulates pituitary
gland (hormones)


Karl Kim and Joy Hirsch (1997)
How the brain processes language in bilingual
individuals?
1. What conclusions could be reached from this study in
terms of localization of function?
2. What could be the advantage of using fMRI in this
study?
Localization of the Brain function
Electrical stimulation of the nucleus accumbens the
pleasure center
Heath (1950) Patient B-19 during a three hour study
administered 1500 electrical impulses to induce pleasure
sensation.
James Old
Rats walk across an electrical
grid to push the pleasure lever.
they even preferred the
simulation to eating and drinking

The Nucleus Accumbens
Stimulation of the neurotransmitter
Dopamine promotes desire
Serotonin promotes satiety and inhibition
Animal studies show drugs increase the levels of DA
(dopamine) in the n.a. and lower 5-HT(Serotonin)
Cocaine
Nicotine
Increased usage of the drug increases the amount of DA in
the n.a.
Ethics
Animal studies have been used to gain valuable
information about the nucleus accumbens and
addiction.
Animals in these studies suffered and were killed.
Find an argument on both sides of the debate about
whether it is ethical to use animal research for the
betterment of human beings.


Each organism contains many neurons, or nerve cells.
Neuronal activity is studied to understand the
mechanisms underlying behavior.
Research can be applied to humans, especially in diseases
of the brain.
Viewpoints to Explore the Biology of Behaviour
Neurotransmitters and their
Effects on Behaviour

How environment affects the brain
Effects of the environment on psychological process:
Jet lag disrupts circadian rhythms
Effects of deprivation of neuroplasticity
Effects of environmental stressors on reproductive
mechanisms
Effects of stress on the immune system

Neural Plasticity: Behavior Can
Change the Brain
Neural plasticity describes the ability of the brain to be
changed by environment and by experience.
This can occur during development as well as in adulthood.
Dendritic spines in the brain can change shape in seconds.
Brain Plasticity
Can the brain change in response to the environment?
Hubel and Wiesel (1965)
Laboratory experiment
Rats
Rosenweig & Bennett (1972)
Lab experiments with rats
Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972)
Rats in 2 environments
Measured the effects of neural develop in
cerebral cortex
Group 1: Enrichment (interesting toys) social life too!

Group 2: Deprivation (no toys)

What were the results?


Brain plasticity
Environmental influences on neuroplasticity
Impoverished environment
Enriched environment
Group 1: Enrichment (interesting toys)
30-60 days, then autopsied post-mortem brains
Group 1 (enrichment) thicker cortex, frontal lobe
(thinking, planning, decision making) heavier
Brain weight increased 7-10%
Number of synapses increased 20%
Impoverished rats easy to spot
Increased cerebral thickness.
Environmental enrichment can
modify the brain (esp. cerebral
cortex, higher cognitive functioning)

Brain plasticity
Brain plasticity
Plasticity: brains ability to
rearrange the connections
between neurons
Changes that occur in the structure of the brain as
result of learning or experience (adaptation)

High levels of stimulation, numerous learning
opportunities, increase in density of neural connections



Bryan Kolb and Ian Whishaw, 1998
Infant rats given stimulation & touch
(holding)
Gained more weight
Developed faster neurologically

Premature babies, the same results
(orphans, preemies (Dr. Tiffany Fields)



Field 2001, Meaney et al 1988
Repeated experiences modified a rats neural tissue

During puberty, those neural
connections that have not been
activated by experience will
degenerate away
Use it or lose it!
Application: learning
a new skill, new
language, love


Brain plasticity
The idea that the brain, when damaged, will
attempt to find new ways to reroute messages.
Childrens brains are more plastic than adults.
Pons 1991, severed the neural pathways for
incoming information from a monkeys arm
The sensory cortex that used to receive
this input gradually shifted its function
Similar studies: 2009 Lorimer
Moseley and Peter Brugger
Phantom Body Parts (amputees)
(Ramachandran & Mcgeoch, 2013)


Brain plasticity
New belief: brain is constantly changing
throughout lifespan
Brain changes in response to environmental input
(Good or Bad)

True for Phantom Limb
Hemispherectomy



Brain plasticity
Dendritic Branching:
Every time we learn something new, the neurons
connect a new trace in the brain
The dendrites of the neurons grow in numbers
and connect with other neurons
Ex: Brain of expert musician has thicker cortex for music
than non-musician
Students who study vs. students who dont


Effects of Cognition on physiology
Humans are able to influence the way the brain functions
(pg 47)

Does Meditation change brain activity?
Gamma waves linked to higher reasoning
Richard Davidson (2004)
8 Buddhist monks, experienced in
mediation
Control: 10 volunteers trained
for 1 week
Effect of Cognition?

Does Meditation change brain activity?
All participants told to meditate on love & compassion
PET scan: ALL monks exper. increase in number of
gamma waves in their brain during meditation
(gamma waves have been linked to higher reasoning)
2 in the control group
Stopped meditation, gamma waves returned to normal
Monks who meditated on compassion more than 10,000
hours kept higher gamma waves


Modern Viewpoint
Neuroplasticity allows the brain to
adapt.
Multiple brain areas coordinate to
complete cognitive functioning.
Chemical Messengers in the Nervous
System
Learning Outcome 7
Hormones The Long-Distance Messengers Blood
stream
1. Secreted by Endocrine glands that affect the
functioning of other organs
2. Some hormones are similar to neurotransmitters
3. Pituitary Gland Master gland
4. Types of Hormones
PITUITARY
regulates growth;
controls the thyroid,
ovaries or testes,
pancreas, and adrenal
cortex; regulates water
and salt metabolism

PANCREAS
controls levels of
insulin and glucagon;
regulates sugar
metabolism
TESTES (male)
affect physical
development,
reproductive organs,
and sexual behavior
HYPOTHALAMUS
controls the pituitary
gland
THYROID
controls the metabolic
rate
ADRENAL CORTEX
regulates carbohydrate
and salt metabolism
ADRENAL MEDULLA
prepares the body
for action
OVARIES (female)
affect physical
development,
reproductive organs,
and sexual behavior
Chemical Messengers in the Nervous
System
a) Adrenal hormones (Cortisol & adrenaline)
1) Emotions and stress
2) Epinephrine (adrenaline), nor-epinephrine, & cortisol (Increases
blood sugar levels)
1) Activates sympathetic nervous system ready for action
2) Fight or flight
3) Stress!
b) Melatonin (regulates sleep cycle)
1) Pineal glands regulates biological rhythms
2) Some on 24 hour cycle, others less frequently
1) Circadian (sur-CAY-dee-un) rhythm 24 hours
2) Controlled by your body clock suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
in the hypothalamus
Chemical Messengers in the Nervous
System
Sex hormones
1) Androgens (testosterone) testes & ovaries puberty &
sexual arousal male mainly
2) Estrogens female menstrual cycle & female puberty
3) Effects of these hormones on non-sexual behavior is
still unclear
1) PMS
2) Male aggression
Oxytocin: pituitary gland, may promote attachment
& trust between people
Cortisol and Memory
Cortisol is a hormone
produced by the adrenal
glands in response to
stress and to restore
homeostasis.
Chronic stress may result
in prolonged cortisol
secretion
Which can damage the
immune system and
impair memory.
Newcomer et al (1999)
Experiment on Cortisol and
Memory
Aim: To investigate how
levels of cortisol levels
interfere with verbal
declarative memory.

Newcomer et al (1999)
Experiment on Cortisol and
Memory
Procedure: A self selected
sample (through and
advertisement) of 51
normal and healthy
people ages 18-30 was
used.
Randomized, controlled
and double-blind.
Three conditions.

Newcomer et al (1999)
Experiment on Cortisol and Memory
Condition 1: High level
of cortisol (160 mg
tablet), was given. Same
as cortisol released in a
stressful event.
Condition 2: Low level of
cortisol (40mg tablet).
Same as minor stressful
event.
Condition 3: A placebo
Newcomer et al (1999)
Experiment on Cortisol and
Memory
Results:
The high level group
performed worse on
verbal memory test than
the low level group and
placebo group.
The low level group
showed no memory
decrease.

Newcomer et al (1999)
Experiment on Cortisol and Memory
Evaluation
It was controlled and
randomized so it was
possible to establish a
cause and effect
relationship.
They received informed
consent.
Negative effect of cortisol
levels was reversible so no
harm was done.


Brain Imagining Technologies
LO #
Technology in brain research
Invasive techniques procedures used in earlier
research that produced damage to localized areas.
Before and after studies.
Ablation (removal)
Lesions (scarring)
Hetherington and Ranson (1942) lesion to the ventromedial
hypothalamus in rats



Modern Techniques
EEG
Electroencephalogram
Brainwaves study:
Sleep
Emotion
Epilepsy


Modern Techniques Cont.,
PET Positron Emission Topography. Monitors glucose
metabolism in the brain
Injected with radioactive glucose
Detects:
Tumors
Changes such as Amyloid plaque
Alzheimer's
Compares normal to abnormal brains:
schizophrenia,
sex differences Gur et al., (1995) more metabolism in primitive
brain centers controlling violence in men than women.
Hainer et al, 1988 (pg 102)
PET scans, those with higher IQ use less energy
to solve problems than low IQ (metabolic rates)
Less Effort Hypothesis
Modern Techniques Cont.,
fMRI functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic fields and radio waves
Three dimensional view
Most frequently used technologies in bio-psychological
research.
Show actual brain activity
and indicates areas of the brain
active when engaged in behavior.


Evaluating Brain scanning
techniques
fMRI is not a natural environment for cognition. There
is a question of ecological validity
The use of colors may exaggerate the different
activities of the brain.
Brain areas activate for various reasons just because
the amygdala lights up, doesnt mean that fear is
necessarily part of the response being observed.
ToK Ethics:
Do you think doctors should scan patients to let them
know is they have a predisposition for a mental illness?
What effect do you think this would have on the
individual?
Could this technology be misused? Does the potential
for abuse of technology and knowledge mean that it
should not be pursued?