DEFLECTION AND

STIFFNESS
SPRING RATES
Elasticity is that property of a material that enables it to regain
its original configuration after having been deformed.

A spring is a mechanical element that exerts a force when
deformed.

Two classification of springs are,

1. linear spring

2. non-linear spring
LINEAR SPRING
Figure a shows a straight beam of length l simply supported at the
ends and loaded by the transverse force F.

The deflection y is linearly related to the force, as long as the elastic
limit of the material is not exceeded, as indicated by the graph.

This beam can be described as a linear spring.
NON-LINEAR SPRING
There are two types of non-linear spring ,
1. Non-linear stiffening spring

2. Non-linear softening spring

1. Non-linear stiffening spring:

In Fig. (b ) a straight beam is supported on two cylinders such that the
length between supports decreases as the beam is deflected by the force
F.

A larger force is required to deflect a short beam than a long one, and
hence the more this beam is deflected, the stiffer it becomes.

Also, the force is not linearly related to the deflection, and hence this
beam can be described as a nonlinear stiffening spring.
NON-LINEAR STIFFENING SPRING

NON-LINEAR SOFTENING SPRING
Figure (c) is an edge-view of a dish-shaped round disk. The force
necessary to flatten the disk increases at first and then decreases as
the disk approaches a flat configuration, as shown by the graph.

Any mechanical element having such a characteristic is called a
nonlinear softening spring.
SPRING CONSTANT
The general relationship between force(F) and
deflection() are,

F

F = k *

Where k is called as spring constant.



TENSION, COMPRESSION AND TORSION
The total extension or contraction of a uniform bar in pure
tension or compression, is given by



This equation does not apply to a long bar loaded in compression if
there is a possibility of buckling.

The spring constant of an axially loaded bar is,
TENSION, COMPRESSION AND TORSION
The angular deflection of a uniform round bar subjected
to a twisting moment T,



where is in radians.

The torsional spring rate as,


DEFLECTION DUE TO BENDING
The problem of bending of beams probably occurs more often than
any other loading problem in mechanical design.

Shafts, axles, cranks, levers, springs, brackets, and wheels, as well
as many other elements, must often be treated as beams in the design
and analysis of mechanical structures and systems.

The curvature of a beam subjected to a bending moment M is given
by




where is the radius of curvature.
DEFLECTION DUE TO BENDING
The curvature of a plane curve is given by the equation




where the interpretation here is that y is the lateral deflection of the
beam at any point x along its length.

The slope of the beam at any point x is
1
DEFLECTION DUE TO BENDING
For many problems in bending, the slope is very small, and for these
the denominator of Eq. (1) can be taken as unity.

Equation (1) can then be written as,



Differentiating Eq. (2) yields,
2
DEFLECTION DUE TO BENDING
It is convenient to display these relations in a group as follows:

load

shear force

bending moment

slope

deflection

BEAM DEFLECTION BY SUPER POSITION
Superposition resolves the effect of combined loading on a structure
by determining the effects of each load separately and adding the
results algebraically.

Superposition may be applied provided:

(1) Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it,

(2) A load does not create a condition that affects the result of
another load,

(3) The deformations resulting from any specific load are not large
enough to appreciably alter the geometric relations of the parts of the
structural system.
STRAIN ENERGY
Strain energy principles are widely used for determining the
response of machines and structures to both static and dynamic
loads.





When load stretches the bar, strains are produced. The presence of
these strains increase the energy level of the bar itself.

The energy absorbed by the bar during the loading process is called
strain energy.


1
STRAIN ENERGY
Strain energy classified into two types,

1. Elastic strain energy

2. Inelastic strain energy

1. Elastic strain energy

The strain energy recovered during unloading .

2. Inelastic strain energy

The energy that is lost permanently deforming the bar.
STRAIN ENERGY
Let assume that the material of the bar shown in fig.1
follows Hooke's law so that the load displacement curve
is a straight line.

Then the strain energy (U) stored in the bar (equal to the
work (W) done by the load ) is

STRAIN ENERGY
If the member is deformed a distance y, and if the force-deflection
relationship is linear, this energy is equal to the product of the
average force and the deflection,








This above equation is general in the sense that the force F can also
mean torque, or moment.

F y

F = k * y

y = F/k
STRAIN ENERGY
By substituting appropriate expressions for k, strain-energy formulas
for various simple loadings may be obtained.


For tension and compression and for torsion,

STRAIN ENERGY
To obtain an expression for the strain energy due to direct shear,
consider the element with one side fixed in Fig. a.

The force F places the element in pure shear, and the work done is
U = F/2.

Since the shear strain is = /l = /G = F/AG, we have
1
STRAIN ENERGY
The strain energy stored in a beam or lever by bending may be obtained
by referring to Fig. 4b.
Here AB is a section of the elastic curve of length ds having a radius of
curvature .
The strain energy stored in this element of the beam is
dU = (M/2)d.

Since d = ds, we have
2
STRAIN ENERGY
Equation (2) is exact only when a beam is subject to pure bending. Even
when shear is present, Eq. (2) continues to give quite good results, except
for very short beams.

The strain energy due to shear loading of a beam is a complicated problem.
An approximate solution can be obtained by using Eq. (1) with a correction
factor whose value depends upon the shape of the cross section.

If we use C for the correction factor and V for the shear force, then the
strain energy due to shear in bending is the integral of Eq. (1)






TABLE FOR CORRECTION FACTOR
CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM
Castiglianos theorem states that when forces act on elastic systems
subject to small displacements, the displacement corresponding to
any force, in the direction of the force, is equal to the partial
derivative of the total strain energy with respect to that force.

The terms force and displacement in this statement are broadly
interpreted to apply equally to moments and angular displacements.
Mathematically, the theorem of Castigliano is i
CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM
Axial and torsional deflections by using Castigliano's
theorem,





CASTIGLIANOS THEOREM
Castiglianos theorem can be used to find the deflection at a point
even though no force or moment acts there.
The procedure is:
1 . Set up the equation for the total strain energy U by including
the energy due to a fictitious force or moment Qi acting at the point
whose deflection is to be found.

2 . Find an expression for the desired deflection i , in the
direction of Qi , by taking the derivative of the total strain energy
with respect to Qi .

3. Since Qi is a fictitious force, solve the expression obtained in
step 2 by setting Qi equal to zero. Thus,
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

A system in which the laws of statics are not sufficient to
determine all the unknown forces or moments is said to
be statically indeterminate.


Problems of which this is true are solved by writing the
appropriate equations of static equilibrium and additional
equations pertaining to the deformation of the part. In all,
the number of equations must equal the number of
unknowns.

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
A simple example of a statically indeterminate problem is furnished by the
nested helical springs in Fig.
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
Only one equation of static equilibrium can be written. It is




which simply says that the total force F is resisted by a force F1 in
spring 1 plus the force F2 in spring 2. Since there are two unknowns
and only one equation, the system is statically indeterminate.


In the spring example, obtaining the necessary deformation equation
was very straightforward. However, for other situations, the
deformation relations may not be as easy. A more structured
approach may be necessary.

PROCEDURE FOR STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
PROBLEMS
Procedure 1 :

1. Choose the redundant reaction(s). There may be alternative choices .

2. Write the equations of static equilibrium for the remaining reactions
in terms of the applied loads and the redundant reaction(s) of step 1.

3. Write the deflection equation(s) for the point(s) at the locations of the
redundant reaction(s) of step 1 in terms of the applied loads and the
redundant reaction(s) of step 1. Normally the deflection(s) is (are) zero.
If a redundant reaction is a moment, the corresponding deflection
equation is a rotational deflection equation.

4. The equations from steps 2 and 3 can now be solved to determine the
reactions
PROCEDURE FOR STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
PROBLEMS
Procedure 2 :

1. Write the equations of static equilibrium for the beam in
terms of the applied loads and unknown restraint reactions.

2 . Write the deflection equation for the beam in terms of the
applied loads and unknown restraint reactions.

3. Apply boundary conditions consistent with the restraints.

4. Solve the equations from steps 1 and 3.