INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

INSTRUCTOR
Bhola R. Gurjar, Ph. D.
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Office: Room # 307

E-mail: brgurjar@gmail.com


CE-105, Introduction to Environmental Studies; L: 3; Credits: 3;
S. No. Contents Contact Hours
1. Overview: Environment and Natural Processes; Development (Resource Utilization &
Waste Generation); Environmental issues; Concept of Sustainable Development; Issues
affecting future development (population, urbanization, health, water scarcity, energy,
climate, toxic chemicals, finite resources etc.); Environmental units
6
2. Air Water interaction: (Liquid phase-gas phase equilibrium) Henrys Law Constant with
units, Dimensionless Henrys Law Constant
3
3. Water Soil Interaction: Carbonate System (Alkalinity and buffering capacity); Major
ions in water; Natural Organic Matter (NOMs); Water quality parameters; Physical
processes (Mass Balance): Spatio-temporal variation in quality of river water, lake water,
ground water; Water quality standards
9
4. Water treatment and wastewater treatment . 4
5. Air resources: Atmosphere; Air pollutants; Emissions and control of air pollutants;
Transport of air (global, regional, local); Air stability; Plume shape; Air Pollution:
Meteorology and dispersion modeling; Air quality standards
9
6. Land pollution and solid waste management, Wetlands, 3+2
7. Ecosystem: Structure and function; Energy flow in ecosystem; Material flow in
ecosystem; Biodiversity and ecosystem health; Bio-amplification and bio-magnification
3
8. Hazardous Waste: Definition; Classification; Storage and management; Site remediation;
Environmental Risk: perception, assessment, and management
3
CE-105, Introduction to Environmental Studies;
L: 3; Credits: 3;
Objective: To introduce fundamentals of environmental pollution and its control
S. No. Name of Books / Authors/ Publishers Year of
Publication/
1 Davis M. L. and Cornwell D. A., Introduction to
Environmental Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York 4/e
2008
2 Masters G. M., Introduction to Environmental Engineering
and Science, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. 2/e
2007
3 Peavy H. S., Rowe D.R. and Tchobanoglous G.,
Environmental Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York
1986
4. Mines R.O. and Lackey L.W. Introduction to Environmental
Engineering, Prentice Hall, New York
2009
5. Mihelcic J. R. and Zimmerman J.B. Environmental
Engineering; Fundamentals, Sustainability, Design John
Wiley and Sons, Inc
2010
More than 20 million computers are thrown out
every year world wide, very few are recycled
More than 200 million computers shall be obsolete
world wide within a next few years
Same is true for many other electronic goods.
Cell phones are getting obsolete every other month.

Humanitys Top Ten Problems

1. ENERGY
2. WATER
3. FOOD
4. ENVIRONMENT
5. POVERTY
6. DISEASE
7. EDUCATION
8. DEMOCRACY
9. POPULATION
10. TERRORISM & WAR



2011 7.0 Billion People
2050 ~ 10 Billion People
8
RICHARD SMALLEY, NOBEL PRIZE (CHEMISTRY) WINNER 1996:
What to do with such a huge amount of e-waste?
Problems with Electronic Industry
Designers are not responsible for end of life design
Product manufacturing does not consider the entire
life time of the product
Designers are not responsible for end of life design
Result is waste economically inefficient,
environmentally harmful, socially irresponsible
UNSUSTAINABLE
Each time a Google search is generated at the users
computer, the carbon dioxide footprint is 0.2 g of CO
2

per search.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/aug/12/carbon-footprint-
internet
About 1.2% of total fossil-fuel based carbon
emission
Greenhouse gases.
Global Warming.. Polar
Ice caps melt. Sea level
rises.. Many islands and
countries shall get wiped
out..
The Earth is finite..
So are the natural resources..
SHORTAGE OF FRESHWATER
India is destined to face critical stress on drinking water by
the year 2025 along with 48 other countries. 31 of them
are already water stressed.
By the year 2050 about 4 billion people shall be seriously
affected by water shortage around the globe.
RESULT CONFLICT
Environmental Studies
To logically understand is Science &
to channelize nature to improve standard of living is Engineering
The motto is'Replenish the earth and subdue it'.
Is there a barren desertirrigate it;
is there a mountain barrierpierce it;
is there a rushing torrentharness it.
Bridge the rivers; sail the seas; and many more----
Rossiter W. Raymond 1913

Human (Our) actions have widespread impacts on our world and the
other organisms with which we share it.

Science & technology: explain how things work & reveal how we can
make our environment safer, more comfortable and more enduring.


Environmental Studies
Environmental Management: Prevention & Control
Developers (Engineers) can prevent environmental
degradation by knowing the response of the environment
Think globally act locally

Environmental Scientists & Engineers can attempt to control
the environmental degradation

A co-ordination between developmental projects , its
environmental impacts and remedy is possible only when we
are aware of our ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
& ENVIRONMNTAL PROCESSES
Development & its Unintended Consequences
What is Development?
Resource utilization to provide facilities and services.
Waste generation is the unintended consequence of
development
Unintended Consequences or Side Effects
Resource depletion
Pollution/Environmental degradation
What are we giving back to surrounding?
Air: we cannot take in
Water (wastewater): we cannot use
Scrap: we dislike




Sustainable Development
How does environment respond to
development?

How can development be made environment
friendly?

Answer is to understand/study the project,
environment, and environmental science,
and
To work towards Sustainable Development
25
Sustainable Development
Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WHO)

Design of human and industrial systems (Engineering) to ensure that
humankinds use of natural resources do not lead to diminished quality of
life due either to losses in future economic opportunities or to adverse
impacts on social conditions, human health, and the environment. (Michelcic
etal.,2003, Sustainability Science and Engineering: Emergence of a new
Metadiscipline. Environmental Science & Technology 37 (23): 5314-5324)

Natural resources of the earth including air, water, land, flora and
fauna and especially representative samples of natural
ecosystems must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and
future generations through careful planning and management.
26
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Agreed Definition:
Brundtland: meeting the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
Need to balance three components: Economic,
Social and Environmental Aspects
What is Environment?
Biotic & Abiotic Components
Interactions/Processes
Air-water
Air-Soil
Soil-Water
Air-Water-Soil
Interaction of life with air, water,
soil
Structural & Functional Components
of the Ecosystem
Natural System connects and
supports all life on Earth by providing
Oxygen, Water, Food
Services
Elemental and chemical composition
of the earth together with energy
from the sun, constitutes all of the
raw material that support life.



air
land
water
life
Atmosphere;
Gas Phase
Hydrosphere
Aqueous Phase
Lithosphere
Solid Phase
Biosphere
29
Environmental Systems (Natural and Engineered)
Natural Systems:
Concern is with understanding and describing changes in
constituent concentrations and other quality parameters;
Measure given conditions and describe
anticipated changes in constituent(s)
(Output depends on prevailing conditions)
Engineered System:
Concern is with the selection of conditions required to effectively
accomplish specific changes
in concentration and quality parameters
Determine desired changes in constituent
and prescribe required conditions
(Conditions are modified to get desired output)
Describe
Design
30
Environmental Processes
(Natural & Engineered Processes)
Environmental processes of interest are of two categories:
1. Transformation Processes
Environment is comprised of chemicals & transformation in them are described
by chemical reactions
Reactions are physical, chemical and/or biological in nature.
Three dominant characteristics of environmental processes are:
The form and amount of energy available to make them occur
The speed or rate at which energy is exercised to effect change. Most of the
environmental reactions follow fist order kinetics
A system of such spatial and physical characteristics that it allows reactants
to interact or communicate for purposes of reactions.
2. Transport Processes
Macroscale Transport (System Scale):
Movement of constituents in the bulk of a system & across its boundaries
Microscale Transport (Molecular Scale):
Small scale diffusion processes
Occur primarily at the interfaces
Transport from one phase to another is referred to as mass transfer
Environmental Processes (Natural & Engineered Processes)
Process Nature Example/Mass Transfer
Absorption by
liquids
(gas/liquid mass
transfer)
Dissolution air (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-di-oxide) in Rivers,
Lakes; Molecular diffusion of O
2
across air-water interface
Absorption by
solids
Phase Transfer
(liquid-solid)
Absorption of organic contaminants from ground waters by
soils & sediments; Interfacial & interparticle diffusion of solutes
Biochemical
Transformation
Oxidation-
reduction
Biochemical oxidation/reduction of organics in receiving water
(BOD exertion); Diffusion & Metabolic products across cell wall
Chemical
Transformation
Photochemical ,
acid-base reactions
Atmospheric reactions;
Rain water soil-reactions
Chemical
Precipitation
Phase Transfer
(liquid-solid)
Iron oxide deposition at wetted interface, deposition of calcium
carbonates & magnesium silicates on submerged surfaces;
Interfacial & interparticle diffusion & particle growth
Disinfection Inactivation of organisms by heat & sunlight; Mass or heat
transfer across cell membranes
Filtration Separation Process Deposition of bacteria & turbidity in subsurface system;
Microscopipic particle transport & interfacial deposition
Ion Exchange Separation Process
Phase Transfer
Multivalent cation uptake and retardation by soils; Interfacial &
interparticle ion diffusion for porous ion exchange resins
Volatilization Phase Transfer
(liquid-gas)

Release of H
2
S from benthic deposits; Molecular diffusion of O
2

across water-air interface
Environmental Processes
(Natural & Engineered Processes)
Objectives, Information requirements, & expected results for
natural & engineered systems are quite different;

The underlying processes & principles of change are
essentially the same;
33
Environmental Systems
(Measurement of Quantity and Concentration)
Extensive Properties:
Magnitude depends on the size of the system or on sample taken
from the system (e.g. mass, volume, heat capacity and calories).
Quantity is an extensive property
Intensive property:
Magnitude does not depend on the size of a system or on sample
taken from it (e.g. temperature, density, specific heat etc.)
Concentration is an intensive property
Expression of concentration:
mass fraction (0-1; % (per cent); (per mil); ppm; ppb) ,
volume fraction, mole fraction, mass per unit volume, moles per unit
volume (molar), moles per unit mass (molal), equivalents (normal)
Partial Pressure: Species amount in air may be expressed as partial
pressure
Px = -log [x]; [x] is molar concentration; pH, pOH, pCa
++





34
Environmental measurement
1. Ten gram of table salt (NaCl) in pure water is dissolved to make 1 L of
solution. Determine for Na
+
: the mass fraction (%, ppm), mass
concentration, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction in the solution.
(Na = 23; Cl = 35.5)
Molecular weight of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
10 g NaCl = 10/58.5 = 0.17 mole; Na
+
= 0.17 mole x 23 g/mole = 3.9 g of Na
+
.
Mass fraction = 3.9/10 =0.39 % = 0.0039*10
6
= 3900 ppm
Mass concentration = 3.9 g/L = 3900 mg/L ( in aq. systems, mg/L = ppm)
Molarity =0.17 mole/L or 0.17 M; Normality = 0.17 eq/L = 0.17 N
Molality = 0.17 mole/ 0.99 kg = 0.172
Mole fraction = 0.17/ (0.17 + (990/18) = 3.08 x 10
-3

2. Mole fraction of aqueous glucose solution is 0.025. What is the molar &
mass concentration of glucose? (Assumption: density of the solution = 1)
Moles of glucose = 0.025 = 0.25 x 180 = 4.5 g
& moles of water = 0.975 = 0.75 x 18 = 17.55 g
molar concentration = (.025/ 17.55) x 1000 = 1.42 M
mass concentration = (4.5 g/17.55) x 1000 = 256.4 g/L

RICHARD SMALLEY, NOBEL PRIZE WINNER 1996:
TOP 10 PROBLEMS OF HUMANITY
SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR
DETERMINING THE PROSPERITY OF A
HUMAN SOCIETY
Out of 7 billion people
worldwide only 1.5 billion
enjoy modern quality energy
Bringing rest of the people up
in the economic ladder of
human civilization, requires
abundant, low-cost, clean
energy
2011 7.0 Billion People
2050 ~ 10 Billion People
Importance of energy
Energy is the currency of Civilization

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed (first law of
thermodynamics). It may change forms in any given process.

Energy use is directly related to the development

Development is important for all countries and hence
energy needs are ever increasing a big challenge

Most widely used energy sources include: Coal, oil, natural
gas, hydropower, nuclear and fast developing source
Biomass

Energy use is strongly related to environmental pollution


Energy
Steam Engine (late 1700s):
Machinery movement through pressurized steam; Steam Engines
were the power source for
Steamships, steam shovels, steam tractors, steam locomotives,
stationary engines to run sawmills, textile mills & other plants
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) for steam generation
Firewood (late 1700s)
Coal (late 1800s): problems with use of coal
-smoke, fumes, ash, hazardous to mine coal, Heavy machinery
Oil (Three major technologies developed in late 1800s: oil well
drilling, internal combustion engine, refinement of crude into
gasoline)
-- Replacement of steam powered engines and furnaces with
petroleum fueled engines and oil furnace (light machinery)
By 1951 crude oil became dominant source of energy
Natural Gas: Clean fuel

Global Primary Energy Supply
Coal
23%
Oil
35%
Natural Gas
21%
Nuclear
7%
Hydro
2%
Waste Reuse
11%
Other
1%
Renewable and non renewable sources of energy
Non-renewable energy sources- finite resource:
Natural gas - trapped as methane,
crude oil - representing residual sludge.
Coal - highly compressed organic matter, mostly leafy material from
swamp vegetation-that decomposed relatively little.
It takes 1000 years to accumulate the amount of organic matter that
world would consume in one day).
Renewable Energy Sources:
Solar photovoltaic & thermal
Wind
Hydropower
Ocean energy
Geothermal
Waste to energy
Biomass derived fuel



Open & Closed Systems
(Energy crossing
boundary as
heat & work)

+
(energy of mass
entering the
system)

-
(energy of mass
leaving the
system)

=
(net change of
energy in the
system)
(Energy crossing boundary as
heat & work)
= (net change of energy in
the system = mc T)*
Open & closed systems
Open System: Energy & matter can flow across the boundary

Closed System: Only energy (E) flows across the boundary

Energy brings about microscopic (molecular energy) and macroscopic
(Kinetic & potential energy) changes in the substances/systems

Power: rate at which energy is generated or used (energy per unit time).

Energy units: Specific Heat, kilocalorie (kcal), kilojoules (kJ)
1 kcal/kg
0
C = 1 Btu/lb
0
F = 4.184 kJ/kg
0
C =4184 J/kg-C
W = J/s; kJ/s = kW
kWh = (3600s) (kW) =3600 kwatt seconds=3600 s (kJ/s) =3600 kJ= 3.6
X10
6
joules
1 kWh = 3.6 X10
6
joules = 3.6 X10
6
/4184 =860 kcal


Mass and energy balance for coal fired power plant
1. If coal usage in a power plant is 0.7 kg/kWh, what is the
calorific value of coal? Consider that the power plant runs at
35% efficiency.


1 kWh = 3600 kJ = 860 kCal
Actual calorific value of coal is= 5142 kJ/kg/0.35= 14690 kJ/kg = 14.7 MJ/kg
Calorific value of coal if 100% of coal is converted to electrical energy= 3600
kJ/0.7kg = 5142 kJ/kg
The efficiency is 35%
This means that only 35% of the calorific value of coal is converted to
electrical energy
----cont.
Example:
A 5 kW heater is used to raise the temperature of 150 L of water from 10 to
60
0
C. Find out time required. (Assumptions: all of the electrical energy is
converted to heat, energy is not required to raise the temperature of the
tank, and no heat loss from the tank to the environment).
Solution:
rate of energy input; power = 5kW
Total Energy required = 5 x hr = 5 t kW hr
Energy output = 0
Change in energy stored = m c T = 150 kg x 1 (kcal/kg -
0
C) x 50
0
C = 7500 kcal
5 t kW hr = 5 t hr x 3600 kJ/hr = 18000 kJ x t = 4285.7 kcal/hr x t = 7500 kcal
t = 7500/4285.7 = 1.75 hr
(Through such energy balance change in temperature of surrounding air /water can
be calculated)

Electricity: Electrical Power-Secondary Energy Source (depends on
primary source )

Electrical power is indispensable
>33% of fossil fuel production is used to generate electricity
Generally it takes three units of primary energy to create one unit of
electrical energy that actually is put to use, remaining two units are lost
as heat
Cooling towers are integral part of thermal & nuclear power plants.
Electric Generators: Mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy
Turbo generators: Turbine coupled with generators
Pressurized steam driven turbine (thermal power, non-renewable)
Water driven turbines (hydro power, renewable)
Wind turbines (Wind Power)
Gas driven turbines
(coal, oil, and nuclear energy are commonly used to generate steam.
However, burning refuse, solar energy, and geothermal energy may be
widely used in future).

Thermal Power plants in India
Coal as a source of energy contains mixture of compounds of C
and H, also contain appreciable amounts of O, N, S and mineral
matter
Indian coals are mainly bituminous / lignite & ash content is very
high
Coals typically have high ash content (ranging from 3550%), high
moisture content (420%), low sulfur content (0.20.7%), and low
calorific values (between 25005000 kcal/kg, which is much less
than the normal range of 5000 to 8000 kcal/kg.
Power plants in India use different qualities of coal, different
combustion technologies and operating conditions.
Ash generation from Indian coal is 132t/h as compared 17 t/h
from International standard
According to the Central Electricity Authority (CEA, 2010) the
present (as on March, 2010) capacity for electricity generation from
coal and lignite-based thermal power plants in India is 93772 MW.




Emissions per unit of electricity during
2001-02 to 2009-10
Emissions g/kWh Average annual
rate of increase %
CO2 82 0 1000 5.6
SO2 6.94-7.20 *
NO 4.22-4.38 5.6
Particulate matter (C) 0.15 -0.17 -
Coal usage 0.7 0.78 kg /kWh; from 86 plants
Kg emissions/kWh = (kg/vol.) x (volume of emission/kWh)
* SO2 emission depends on S content in the coal(<0.5%); CO2 & NO
emission depends on the operating conditions
Ash generation = 132t/h

Environmental Concern


Serious concerns in the production &
consumption of coal in India:

Problems related to minning

problems related to air & water pollution
and ash disposal.
Example
The efficiency of a 1000 MW thermal Power plant is 33.3 %.
Estimate the following for the plant with the following
conditions: Coal has 0.5% S and 15% of S is fixed in coal ash.
15% of the waste heat escapes as hot air and remaining is
transferred to cooling water
1. Coal requirement t/day (Calorific value of coal = 30 MJ/kg)
2. CO
2
emission; g/day & g/kW
3. SO
2
emission; kg/day & g/kW
4. Waste heat generated.
5. Cooling water requirement in m
3
/s such that the
background temperature of the water does not increase
beyond 10
0
C.
SOLUTION
Electrical Power Requirement = 1000 MW
Efficiency = 33.3%= 1/3 Thermal power to be generated = 1000/(1/3) =3000 MW
= 3000 MJ/s
Calorific value of coal = 30 MJ/kg
Coal consumption rate =
coal of value Calorific
Power Thermal
s kg/ 100
MJ/kg 30
MJ/s 3000

Coal required in a day = 100 kg/s * 60 *60*24 = 8640 t/day
2 2
CO O C
12 44
Carbon dioxide produced = ton/day 31680 8640 *
12
44

2 2
SO O S
32 64
Sulfur in the coal reacting = 0.5% of coal = 0.005*8640 = 43.2 t/day
Sulfur forming SO2 gas = 85% of sulfur = 0.75*43.2 = 32.4 t/day
Sulfur dioxide being released in the atmosphere = (64/32) *32.4 = 64.8 t/day
2/3
rd
of the thermal heat is waste heat and rest 1/3
rd
is electrical energy
Waste heat = (2/3) * 3000 MJ/s = 2000 MJ/s
85% of the waste heat is taken out by the cooling water. So, the cooling water
temperature rise. The limit of temperature rise is 10 deg C
Let the cooling water requirement is Q L/s i.e Q kg/s
Applying the heat balance, we get
Q * 1* 10 = 0.85* 2000 *10
3
KJ/s/(4.2kJ/Kcal)
Q = 476 cum/s
55
Hydropower to Electric Power
Potential
Energy
Kinetic
Energy
Electrical
Energy
Mechanical
Energy
Electricity
Reservoir
Outflow Stream
56
Immediate Benefits of a Hydroelectric Plants
Hydroelectric plants:
Start easily and quickly and change power output rapidly
Complement large thermal plants (coal and nuclear),
which are most efficient in serving base power loads.
Save millions of barrels of oil/ several millions of tons of
coal
Carbon-negative technology
Very efficient to meet peak demands
MACRO HYDRO-POWER PROJECTS IN INDIA
S.No. Project River / State Installed
Capacity
1 Bhakra Sutlej & Beas/ Himachal Pradesh 1325 MW
2 Dehar Sutlej / Himachal Pradesh 990 MW
3 Kalinadi Stage-I Kalinadi 910 MW
4 Sharavathy Sharavathy / Karnataka 891 MW
5 Koyna Koyna / Maharashtra 880 MW
6 Nagarjuna-Sagar Krishna / Andhra Pradesh 810 MW
7 Idduki stage-I Idukki, Kalavu & Cheruthan / Kerala 780 MW
8 Srisailam Krishna / Andhra Pradesh 770 MW
9 Salal Chenab / Jammu & Kashmir 690 MW
10 Ranjit Sagar Ravi / Punjab 600 MW
11 Chamera I, II, III Ravi / Himachal Pradesh 1071 MW
12 Tehri Bhagirathi/ Uttarakhand 1400 MW

58
Worlds Largest Dams and Hydropower Generation
Ranked by maximum power.
Name Country Year
Max
Generation
Annual
Production
Three Gorges China 2009 18,200 MW
Itaip Brazil/Paraguay 1983 12,600 MW 93.4 TW-hrs
Guri Venezuela 1986 10,200 MW 46 TW-hrs
Grand Coulee United States 1942/80 6,809 MW 22.6 TW-hrs
Sayano Shushenskaya Russia 1983 6,400 MW
Robert-Bourassa Canada 1981 5,616 MW
Churchill Falls Canada 1971 5,429 MW 35 TW-hrs
Iron Gates Romania/Serbia 1970 2,280 MW 11.3 TW-hrs
Hydroelectricity, Wikipedia.org
59
Impacts of Hydroelectric Dams
60
Environmental and Social Issues
Land use inundation and displacement of people
Impacts on natural hydrology
Increase evaporative losses
Altering river flows and natural flooding cycles
Sedimentation/silting
Impacts on biodiversity
Aquatic ecology, fish, plants, mammals
Water chemistry changes
Mercury, nitrates, oxygen
Bacterial and viral infections
Seismic Risks
Structural dam failure risks


61
Hydropower Calculations
P = power in kW
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s
2
10 m/s
2
)
= turbo-generator efficiency (0<n<1)
Q = quantity of water flowing (m
3
/sec)
H = effective head (m)
H Q P
H Q g P

10
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2
nd
edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
62
Example 1a
A mountain stream flows over a terrain where micro-hydro power
plant is possible where an effective head of 50 m can be built and a
flow rate of 0.6 m
3
/sec can be maintained. How much power can
the hydro plant generate? Assume plant efficiency () of 83%.

H = 50 m
Q = 0.6 m
3
/s

Q
= 0.83

P 10QH = 10(0.83)(0.6)(50) = 249 kW
P 0.25 MW
63
Example 1b
How much energy (E) will the hydro plant generate each year?

E = Pt
E = 0.25 MW 24 hrs/day 365 days/yr
E = 2180 MWh annually

What is the number of population that can be supported by this
energy? Assume per capita electricity consumption in India as 780
kWh annually?

People = E780 = 2180 * 10
3
/780 2800

64
Example 2
Consider a second site where there is a large hydroelectric dam with an
effective head of 225 m and a flow rate of 710 cubic meters per
second. How many people it would serve?

P 10QH = 10(0.83)(700)(225)
P 1325925 kW = 1325 MW
E = Pt = 1325 MW 24 hrs/day 365 days/yr
E = 11607 GWh = 11.6 TWh (terrawatt hours)
People = E780 = 11.6 TWh / 780 kWh
People = 148 lakh people = 1.5 crore population
This is the Bhakhra-Nangal dam system in India.
If there were no hydroelectric plant and we generate electricity through
coal-fired thermal power plant, how much CO
2
shall be generated to
produce same amount of energy? In other words, how much CO
2
emission is saved by providing the hydroelectric dam project?
On an average 900 g CO
2
is emitted per KWh of energy produced by a
coal-fired power plant
The power generation is 11.2 TWh/year
The CO2 generation in coal-fired thermal power plant route =
11.2*10
9
* 900 g CO
2
= 10 million ton CO
2
per year

In other words, replacing the coal-fired plant with hydropower shall
save the earth from 10 million ton per annum CO
2
emission.

So, Hydropower is a truly carbon-negative technology. Bhakhra Dam
system can claim carbon-credit for the hydroelectricity they produce!

66
Hydropower Pros and Cons
Positive Negative
Emissions-free, with virtually no CO2, NOX,
SOX, hydrocarbons, or particulates
Frequently involves impoundment of large
amounts of water with loss of habitat due to
land inundation
Renewable resource with high conversion
efficiency to electricity (80+%)
Variable output dependent on rainfall and
snowfall
Dispatchable with storage capacity Impacts on river flows and aquatic ecology,
including fish migration and oxygen
depletion
Usable for base load, peaking and pumped
storage applications
Social impacts of displacing indigenous
people
Scalable from 10 KW to 20,000 MW Health impacts in developing countries
Low operating and maintenance costs High initial capital costs
Long lifetimes Long lead time in construction of large
projects
Issues affecting future development

Population & Urbanization
(Developing Countries)

Stress on natural resources, lack in adequate sanitary
facilities, and drainage systems, air pollution water
pollution
Health
Water Scarcity Water Stress when water supply <1700m
3
/person-year
Water Scarce when water supply <1000m
3/
person-year
Energy and Climate; Energy
consumption has increased in
past thirty years and projected
to increase in future

Green house gas emissions, climate change, fossil fuel
depletion, Increase in temperature in the next centaury:
2.4 to 6.4
0
C (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC))
Toxic Chemicals and Finite
resources (non-renewable &
renewable resources)
Problems associated with persistent organic pollution,
trace organics (pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal
care products, endocrine disruptors)
Built Environment (buildings,
roads, bridges)
High requirement of water, energy and other resources
(cement, aggregate steel, reinforcement, wood, heat
island effect
Nuclear Fission
If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then the number of
fissions doubles each generation. In that case, in 10 generations there are
1,024 fissions and in 80 generations about 6 x 10
23
(a mole) fissions.
A nuclear reactor for power plant is designed to sustain continuous chain
reaction, but not allow it to amplify into nuclear explosion
Control is achieved by enriching the uranium to only 4%
235
U & 96 %
238
U



(Moderators)

The moderator slows down the neutrons that produce
fission
Neutrons travel at the right speed to trigger another fission
In slowing down the neutrons moderators gain heat
The moderator is near - pure water or heavy water (D
2
O)
Reactors which use H
2
O are called light water reactors
(LWRs)



CONTROL RODS

The control rods essentially contain neutron
absorbers like, boron, cadmium or indium.

These are inserted into the bundle using a
mechanism that can raise or lower the control rods.



DISADVANTAGES

235
U enrichment
Fission products: 30 lighter elements e.g., I, Cs, Sr, Co etc
generally unstable isotopes (radioisotopes) of their respective elements
Radioactive isotopes Stable Isotopes + particles( + + neutrons)
+ radiations (high energy)
Particles & radiations are called Radioactive Emissions or waste
The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.
High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.
Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the
next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.

Nuclear Power vs Coal Fired Power
(Comparing Nuclear plant (NP) with Coal plant (CP) operated for
one year)
Parameter 1000 MW NP 1000 MW CP
Fuel Needed 1. 30 tons of enriched U is obtained
from mining 75000 tons of ore
2. Energy released from the fission
of about 0.5 kg of U is equivalent
to
1. 2-3 million tons of coal
(Acid Leaching)
2. Burning 50 tons of coal


CO2 Emission none 7 million tons
SO2 & PM none 3 lacs (300000) tons SO2
Radioactivity Low levels of radioactive gases 100 times more radioactivity
(Natural presence of U & Th in coal)
Solid waste 250 tons highly radioactive waste
requiring safe storage & disposal
6 lacs tons of ash requiring disposal
Accidents From minor emission to catastrophic
releases that can lead to radiation
sickness, deaths cancers & long
lasting environmental contamination
Fatalities to workers & destructive
fires
Existing & Emerging Environmental Issues
Source: United Nations Environment Programme,2002
2. Coping with climate change and variability
3. Growth of megacities
4. Human vulnerability to climate change
5. Freshwater depletion and degradation
6. Marine and costal degradation
7. Population growth
8. Rising consumption in developing countries
9. Biodiversity depletion
10. Biosecurity