LINGUISTICS FINAL PAPER

By
Mara del Refugio Garza Landeros

Introduction
Along the years, many different
teaching methods have been
developed whether to face students
needs or to match the requirements of
a new administration, all of them
claiming to be the best option to teach
English. Lets remember some of
them. . .
Review on teaching methods
Total Physical Response (TPR).
The Silent Way.
Community Language Learning.
Suggestopedia.
Whole Language.
Multiple Intelligences.
Neurolinguistic Programming.
The Lexical Approach.
Competency-Based Language Teaching.

Total Physical Response (TPR)
Developed by James Asher, TPR is a language learning method based on the coordination of speech and
action. It is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more often or intensively a memory
connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be. There are six principles Asher elaborates:

1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic
processes
2. Listening should develop before speaking
3. Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that too
4. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.
5. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns
6. Delaying speech reduces stress.

Some of the objectives of Total Physical Response are:

Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level
Using comprehension as a means to speaking
Using action-based drills in the imperative form

TPR uses a sentence-based grammatical syllabus.

TPR main learning techniques and activities are based on situations where a command is given in the
imperative and the students obey the command.
The Silent Way

Caleb Gattegno founded "The Silent Way" as a method for language learning in the early 70s, sharing
many of the same essential principles as the cognitive code and making good use of the theories
underlying Discovery Learning.

Some of his basic theories were:
"teaching should be subordinated to learning" and
"the teacher works with the student; the student works on the language".

The most prominent characteristic of the method was that the teacher typically stayed "silent" most
of the time, as part of his/her role as facilitator and stimulator, and thus the method's popular
name.

Language learning is usually seen as a problem solving activity to be engaged in by the students both
independently and as a group, and the teacher needs to stay "out of the way" in the process as much
as possible.

The Silent Way is also well-known for its common use of small colored rods of varying length
(Cuisinere rods) and color-coded word charts depicting pronunciation values, vocabulary and
grammatical paradigms.

Typical Techniques

(1) Sound-Color Chart - ( Trefers students to a color-coded wall chart depicting individual sounds in the
target language - students use this to point out and build words with correct pronunciation)

(2) Teacher's Silence (T is generally silent, only giving help when it is absolutely necessary)

(3) Peer Correction (Ss are encouraged to help each other in a cooperative and not competitive spirit)

(4) Rods (are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can even be
manipulated directly or abstractly to create sentences)

(5) Self-correction Gestures (T uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing)

(6) Word Chart (the sounds in each word corresponding in color to the Sound-Color Chart described above -
students use this to build sentences)

(7) Fidel Chart (A chart that is color-coded according to the sound-color chart but includes the various
English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual sounds)

(8) Structured Feedback (Students are invited to make observations about the day's lesson and what they
have learned)

It is a unique method and the first of its kind to really concentrate on cognitive principles in language
learning.


Community Language Learning
In the early seventies, Charles Curran developed a new education model he called "Counseling-
Learning". This was essentially an example of an innovative model that primarily considered "affective"
factors as paramount in the learning process. Learners were to be considered not as a "class", but as a
"group", Curran's philosophy dictated that students were to be thought of as "clients" - their needs being
addressed by a "counselor" in the form of the teacher.

The CLL method Principles:
To encourage the students to take increasingly more responsibility for their own learning, and to
"learn about their learning", so to speak.

Learning in a nondefensive manner is considered to be very important, with teacher and student
regarding each other as a "whole person" where intellect and ability are not separated from
feelings.

The initial struggles with learning the new language are addressed by creating an environment of
mutual support, trust and understanding between both "learner-clients" and the "teacher-
counselor.

The Community Language Learning method involves some of the following features:

(1) Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and the teacher as a "teacher-counselor".

(2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process.

(3) Students are permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the
teacher which they then attempt to apply.

(4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.

(5) "Chunks" of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to - they
are also transcribed with native language equivalents to become texts the students work with.

(6) Students apply the target language independently and without translation when they feel inclined/
confident enough to do so.

(7) Students are encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they feel
about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy and understanding.

(8) A variety of activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or
pronunciation point, or creating new sentences based on the recordings/transcripts).

Typical Techniques

(1) Tape Recording Student Conversation (Ss choose what they want to say, and their target language
production is recorded for later listening/dissemination)

(2) Transcription (T produces a transcription of the tape-recorded conversation with translations in the
mother language - this is then used for follow up activities or analysis)

(3) Reflection on Experience (T takes time during or after various activities to allow students to express
how they feel about the language and the learning experience, and T indicates empathy/understanding)

(4) Reflective Listening (Students listen to their own voices on the tape in a relaxed and reflective
environment )

(5) Human Computer (T is a "human computer" for the students to control - T stating anything in the target
language the student wants to practice, giving them the opportunity to self correct)

(6) Small Group Tasks (Ss work in small groups to create new sentences using the transcript, afterwards
sharing them with the rest of the class)

Suggestopedia
In the late 70s, a Bulgarian psychologist by the name of Georgi Lozanov introduced the contention
that students naturally set up psychological barriers to learning - based on fears that they will be
unable to perform and are limited in terms of their ability to learn. Based on psychological research
on extrasensory perception, Lozanov began to develop a language learning method that focused on
"desuggestion" of the limitations learners think they have, and providing the sort of relaxed state of
mind that would facilitate the retention of material to its maximum potential. This method became
known as "Suggestopedia" - the name reflecting the application of the power of "suggestion" to the
field of pedagogy.


Main Objective

To tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in order to accelerate the process by which
they learn to understand and use the target language for communication.

The four factors considered essential in this process:

1. The provision of a relaxed and comfortable learning environment.

2. The use of soft Baroque music to help increase alpha brain waves and decrease blood pressure and
heart rate.

3. Desuggestion" in terms of the psychological barriers learners place on their own learning potential,
and

4. Suggestibility" through the encouragement of learners assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and
names in the target language.

Here are some of the key features of Suggestopedia:


(1) Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft
cushioned seating and dim lighting
.
(2) "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters
and decorations featuring the target language and various grammatical information.

(3) The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom.

(4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners' potential to learn are "desuggested".

(5) Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mental trips with the teacher" and assume new
roles and names in the target language in order to become more "suggestible".

(6) Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and potential to
take in and retain new material during the lesson.

(7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation
into the students' native language.

(8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and vocabulary
are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.

(9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they go to
sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up.

(10) Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.



Typical Techniques


(1) Classroom Set-up (Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not "feel"
like a normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible)

(2) Peripheral Learning (Students can absorb information "effortlessly" when it is perceived as part
of the environment, rather than the material "to be attended to")

(3) Positive Suggestion (Teachers appeal to students' consciousness and subconscious in order to
better orchestrate the "suggestive factors involved in the learning situation)

(4) Visualization (Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help
them relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from the students)


(5) Choose a New Identity (Students select a target language name and/or occupation that places
them "inside" the language they are learning)

(6) Role-play (Ss pretend temporarily that they are someone else and perform a role using the
target language)

(7) First Concert (T does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation with
classical music)

(8) Second Concert (Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed
according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music - this typically
ends the class for the day)

(9) Primary Activation (Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals or in
groups)

(10) Secondary Activation (Students engage in various activities designed to help the students learn
the material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing, dancing, dramatizations
and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the focus)



Whole Language
A holistic philosophy of reading instruction which gained momentum during the 1970s, '80s, and early
'90s. Emphasizes the use of authentic text, reading for meaning, the integration of all language skills
(reading, writing, speaking, and listening), and context.

Key features of Whole Language

1. The key theoretical premise for whole language is that the world over, babies acquire language
through actually using it, not through practicing its separate parts until some later date when the
parts are assembled and the totality is finally used.

2. The major assumption is that the model of acquisition, through real use (not through practice
exercises), is the best model for thinking about and helping with the learning of reading and writing.

3. Language acquisition (both oral and written) is seen as natural - - not in the sense of innate or
inevitable unfolding, but in the sense that when language (oral or written) is an integral part of
functioning of a community and is used around and with neophytes, it is learned "incidentally"...

4. Little use is made of materials written specifically to teach reading and writing. Instead, whole
language relies on literature, on other print used for appropriate purposes (e.g. cake-mix directions
used for really making a cake, rather than for finding short vowels), and on writing for varied
purposes.

Key activities of Whole Language
In order to Emphasize the use of letter/sound cues along with prior knowledge and context."
teachers can do as follows:

1. by modeling how they themselves use meaning (and grammar) along with initial letters to
predict what a word might be;

2. by repeatedly encouraging children to think "what would make sense here" before trying to
sound out a word,

3. by engaging together in oral cloze activities based on their shared readings ("What would fit in
this sentence, 'I put c------ in the soup?'") and

4. by discussing, in literature discussion groups, how various children dealt with problem words.
It is critical to help children develop and use letter/sound knowledge in the context of
constructing meaning from texts.


Multiple Intelligences
Psychologist Howard Gardner, put forth this theory which suggests that an array of different kinds of
intelligence" exists in human beings, that each individual manifests varying levels of these different
intelligences, and thus each person has a unique cognitive profile.

Objective of Multiple Intelligences

To find more ways of helping all students in their classes. The bottom line is a deep interest in
children and how their minds are different from one another, and in helping them use their minds
well.


Gardner identifies kinds of intelligences based upon eight criteria to describe something as an
independent kind of intelligence, rather than merely one of the skills or abilities included in a kind of
intelligence, or a synonym for, or combination of other kinds of intelligence. He proposes the following
list:

Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):

Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")

Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")

Musical intelligence ("music smart")

Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")

Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")

Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Key Criteria for implementing Gardeners theory in the classroom.

It's very important that a teacher take individual differences among kids very seriously

Lesson design. Some schools focus on lesson design. This might involve team teaching
("teachers focusing on their own intelligence strengths"), using all or several of the
intelligences in their lessons, or asking student opinions about the best way to teach and
learn certain topics.

Interdisciplinary units. Secondary schools often include interdisciplinary units.

Student projects. Students can learn to "initiate and manage complex projects" when they
are creating student projects.

Assessments. Assessments are devised which allow students to show what they have
learned. Sometimes this takes the form of allowing each student to devise the way he or she
will be assessed, while meeting the teacher's criteria for quality.

Apprenticeships. Apprenticeships can allow students to "gain mastery of a valued skill
gradually, with effort and discipline over time." Gardner feels that apprenticeships "should
take up about one-third of a student's schooling experience."


Neurolinguistic Programming
The word Neurolinguistic programming can be broken down to three distinct words:

1. Neuro, which refers to the brain and neural network that feeds into the brain. Neurons or nerve
cells are the working units used by the nervous system to send, receive, and store signals that
add up to information.

2. Linguistic(s) refers to the content, both verbal and non-verbal, that moves across and through
these pathways.

3. Programming is the way the content or signal is manipulated to convert it into useful information.
The brain may direct the signal, sequence it, change it based on our prior experience, or connect
it to some other experience we have stored in our brain to convert it into thinking patterns and
behaviors that are the essence of our experience of life.

Objectives of Neurolinguistic Programming Our experiences and feelings affect the way we react to
external stimuli.

NLPs main objective is to create and provide tools to help people to learn through many
different strategies and for many different modalities of teachers. Also,

Identifying and enriching personal strengths
Enhancing memory and imagination
Developing optimal learning states and strategies
Dealing with resistances to learning
Establishing beliefs that support learning
Identify and reframe limiting beliefs relating to learning
Management of multi-level learning interventions
Transforming perceived failures into positive feedback
Exploring interactive learning processes

NLP Activities in the classroom

Different learning modalities and strategies can be used in classrooms. It is important to discover each
student's combination of learning styles and talents to provide to it while simultaneously encouraging
the development of all potential abilities (Dryden & Vos, 1999). So, basically a mixture of activities to
reach all the different kinds of intelligences are recommended. In the model of NLP defining a learning
strategy involves:

1. Identifying the particular sequence of representational systems a person uses within this feedback
loop in order to acquire a mental or behavioral skill.

2. Eliciting a learning strategy by defining the specific sensory modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic)
a person uses during the process of acquiring a certain ability or competency.

3. Helm (1990) experimentally has found no discernable differences between sexes or races as to the
distribution of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning modalities.

4. The sense modalities are seen as the key to processing information and the mind and body are seen
as mutually influencing each other (Craft, 2001).

5. Related to this NLP strategy concept is research conducted by Gardner (1993) to document that each
person possesses at least seven different types of intelligence:
linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and interpersonal intelligence. Gardener
sees that individuals can excel in one area but not the others and
that other types of intelligence can also exist.

A single and universally effective learning strategy does not exist. Certain sequences of representational
systems tend to be more appropriate for some learning tasks and they may be inefficient in other
situations.

The Lexical Approach
The Lexical Approach proposed by Michael Lewis consists not of traditional grammar and vocabulary
but often of multi-word prefabricated chunks. This approach is understood as a serious attempt at
revaluation for the individual teacher and the profession as it develops many of the fundamental
principles advanced by proponents of Communicative Approaches.

Lexical Approach basic principle, is: "Language is grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar
(Lewis 1993). In other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a subservient
managerial role.

'Lexical chunk' is an umbrella term which includes all the other terms. We define a lexical chunk as
any pair or group of words which is commonly found together, or in close proximity.

Here are some examples of Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations):
by the way up to now upside down
If I were you a long way off out of my mind



'Collocation' is also included in the term 'lexical chunk', but we refer to it separately from time to time,
so we define it as a pair of lexical content words commonly found together. Following this definition,
'basic' + 'principles' is a collocation, but 'look' + 'at' is not because it combines a lexical content word
and a grammar function word. Identifying chunks and collocations is often a question of intuition,
unless you have access to a corpus.

Here are some examples Lexical Chunks (that are collocations):
totally convinced strong accent terrible accident
sense of humor sounds exciting brings good luck






There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when teaching
vocabulary. The list below is based on the work of Gairns and Redman (1986):

Boundaries between conceptual meaning: knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are
that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g. cup, mug, bowl).

Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several but closely related
meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organisation).

Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form which has several meanings which
are NOT closely related ( e.g. a file: used to put papers in or a tool).

Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g.
flour, flower).

Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g. extend,
increase, expand).

Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which
depend on the speakers attitude or the situation. Socio-cultural associations of lexical items is another important
factor.

Style, register, dialect: Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts
and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation.

Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g. false
cognates).

Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, lexical phrases.

Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even
different words from that word (e.g. sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable; disability).

Pronunciation: ability to recognise and reproduce items in speech.

Lexical Approach Activities in the classroom

The implication of the aspects just mentioned in teaching is that the goals of vocabulary teaching must be
more than simply covering a certain number of words on a word list. We must use teaching techniques that
can help realize this global concept of what it means to know a lexical item. And we must also go beyond that,
giving learner opportunities to use the items learnt and also helping them to use effective written storage
systems.
Competency-Based Language
Teaching
CBL is a functional approach to education that emphasizes life skills and evaluates mastery of those skills
according to actual leaner performance. It was defined by the U.S. Office of Education as a performance-based
process leading to demonstrated mastery of basic and life skills necessary for the individual to function proficiently
in society
(U.S. Office of Education, 1978).

With regards to a Competency-Based Programme (CBP) and Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT),
Auerbach (1986) highlights the following features sum up the essence of this approach. They warrant inclusion here
as they outline much of what the Tuning Project deems appropriate for second language learning in an academic
setting. The features are:
1. A focus on successful functioning in society. The goal is to enable students to become autonomous
individuals capable of coping with the demands of the world.
2. A focus on Life skills. Rather than teaching language in isolation, CBLT teaches language as a function of
communication about concrete tasks. Students are taught just those language forms/skills required by the
situations in which they will function. These forms are determined by "empirical assessment of language
required" (Findley and Nathan 1980: 224).
3. Task- or performance-centred orientation. What counts is what students can do as a result of instruction.
The emphasis is on overt behaviours rather than on knowledge or the ability to talk about language and
skills.
4. Modularized instruction. "Language learning is broken down into manageable and immediately meaningful
chunks" (Center for Applied Linguistics 1983: 2). Objectives are broken into narrowly focused sub objectives
so that both teachers and students can get a clear sense of progress.
5. Outcomes that are made explicit a priori. Outcomes are public knowledge, known and agreed upon by both
learner and teacher. They are specified in terms of behavioral objectives so that students know exactly what
behaviors are expected of them.
6. Continuous and ongoing assessment. Students are pre-tested to determine what skills they lack and post-
tested after instruction in that skill. If they do not achieve the desired level of mastery, they continue to work
on the objective and are re-tested. Program evaluation is based on test results and, as such, is considered
objectively quantifiable.
7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives. Rather than the traditional paper-and-pencil tests,
assessment is based on the ability to demonstrate pre-specified behaviors.
8. Individualized, student-centered instruction. In content, level, and pace, objectives are defined in terms of
individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into account in developing curricula. Instruction
is not time-based; students progress at their own rates and concentrate on just those areas in which they
lack competence.
Auerbach (1986: 414-415) in Richards and Rogers (2001:p146)

Subsequently, Richards and Rogers list a series of advantages of this methodology
for the learner,
The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the
learner's needs and interests.
2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful.
3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public -
hence the learner knows exactly what needs to be learned.
4. Competencies can be mastered one at a time so the learner can see what
has been learned and what still remains to be learned.
(Richards and Rogers, 2001: p146-7)

Activities for CBL:
In a content-based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the
subject being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn
through the target language. Such an approach lends itself quite naturally to the
integrated teaching of the four traditional language skills. For example, it employs
authentic reading materials which require students not only to understand
information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. It provides a forum in which
students can respond orally to reading and lecture materials. It recognises that
academic writing follows from listening, and reading, and thus requires students
to synthesise facts and ideas from multiple sources as preparation for writing. In
this approach, students are exposed to study skills and learn a variety of language
skills which prepare them for a range of academic tasks they will encounter.
Brinton et al., in Richards and Rogers (2001:p220)

The main features of this model are outlined below:
- The focus is on process rather than product.
- Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasise
communication and meaning.
- Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and
purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks.

Activities and tasks can be either:
Those that learners might need to achieve in real life;
Those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.
Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.

The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including :
the previous experience of the learner,
the complexity of the task,
the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available.
Feez in Richards and Rogers (2001: p 224)
ESCUELA NORMAL SUPERIOR
PROFR. MOISS SENZ GARZA

STAGE PROCEDURE AIM AIDS
TIMING
METHOD EVALUABLE
PRODUCTS
Warm up

T verbally compares three school
objects, three people and three TV
sitcoms Ss know well.
Activate Ss'
awareness of the
comparative and
superlative forms
Realia
Flash cards


5
Presentation
or
Challenge

Ss answer questions based on what
T has told them.
Ss pair up to complete the first and
the second exercises on the work
sheet.
Ss infer the rules for the
construction of the comparative and
superlative forms based on their
completion of the previous tasks.
T will probably have to point out
that a three letter word following the
CVC (consonant - vowel -
consonant) form will double the
final consonant. Example: big -
bigger
Ss remember the
basic on
comparative and
superlative forms
so they go on into
higher difficulty
level usage of
them.
Worksheet
Notebooks
Pencils
Wall chart
Board
Markers


5

5


10



5


Silent Way


Community
Language
Learning


Multiple
Intelligences


Work sheet: Ex 1 & 2


Rules elaborated by
the Ss.
Practice

Ss get into groups of three to four
and choose one of the topic
headings in exercise number three
for their group.
Ss then decide on three objects in
the topic area to compare and
contrast in superlative form
verbally.
Encourage Ss to
recycle their
previous
knowledge, blend
it with the new
one and improve
both their skills
and knowledge
Work sheet
pencils
2



8
Neurolinguistic
Programming
Community
Language
Learning
Competency-
Based
Teaching


Verbal report at
random (just to check
they worked not
marking mistakes in
pronunciation)
Production

Individually, Ss write a short
paragraph including three
comparative sentences and three
superlative ones on the topic they
choose.

Test Ss level of
acquisition of the
new structures
and the
management they
have on it.
Notebooks
Pencils
Dictionaries

5 All of the
above but
Silent Way
Paragraph written in
their notebooks.
Conclusions
It is impossible or at least very difficult, to use only
one method in an English class.
Therefore, we will say we use an Eclectic Approach
by applying what we think is the best option to help
our students.
Variety and Flexibility are the most important
features to implement in a class, in any class.
There is not a quintessential method nor an activity: it
all depends on the teachers style and the students
needs.
Keeping updated in teaching stuff is a must.
Work sheet
Exercise 1
Read the sentences below and then give the comparative form for each of the adjectives listed.
Tennis is a more difficult sport than J ogging.
I think J ohn is happier now than a year ago.
Could you open the window, please? It's getting hotter in this room by the minute.
interesting ___________
weak ___________
funny ___________
important ___________
careful ___________
big ___________
small ___________
polluted ___________
boring ___________
angry ___________

Exercise 2
Read the sentences below and then give the superlative form for each of the adjectives listed.
New York is the most exciting city in the world.
His biggest desire is to return home.
She is probably the angriest person I know.
interesting ___________
weak ___________
funny ___________
important ___________
careful ___________
big ___________
small ___________
polluted ___________
boring ___________
angry ___________

Exercise 3
Choose one of the topics below and think of three examples from that topic - for example: Sports - football, basketball and
surfing. Compare the three objects.
Cities
Sports
Writers
Films
Inventions
Cars


Sources of Information
Baigent, M. (2003) Vocabulary development strategies for teachers and learners
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/teachersclub/teaching/articles/development/

http://www.sil.org/LinguaLinks/LanguageLearning/WaysToApproachLanguageLearnin
g/.htm

Larsen-Freeman, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:45-47)

http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr054.shtml

http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/teachingvocabulary.html

Richards, J and Rogers (2nd Edition, 2001) Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.