Chapter 7

Atomic Structure and Periodicity

g orbital dz
2
orbital
Electromagnetic Radiation
07_94
10
-12
10
-10
10
-8
4 x 10
-7
Gamma
rays
X rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwaves Radio waves
FM Shortwave AM
4 x 10
-7
Wavelength in meters
5 x 10
-7
6 x 10
-7
7 x 10
-7
7 x 10
-7
10
-4
10
-2
1 10
2
10
4
V
i
s
i
b
l
e
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electric Field and Magnetic Field Traveling at Right Angle
Waves
Waves have 3 primary characteristics:
1. Wavelength : distance between two peaks in
a wave.
2. Frequency v: number of waves per second that
pass a given point in space.
3. Speed c: speed of light is 2.9979 10
8
m/s.
07_93 1 second

1
v
1
= 4 cycles/second = 4 hertz
v
2
= 8 cycles/second = 8 hertz

3
v
3
= 16 cycles/second = 16 hertz
(m) v (s
-1
) = c (m/s)
1Hz = cycles/s = s
-1


Relation between wavelength and Frequency:
Inverse Proportionality
1 nm = 10
-9
m; 1 = 10
-10
m; 1 pm = 10
-12
m
1nm = 10
As the amplitude increases, the intensity (the brightness)
increases
Intensity is proportional to A
2
:

I o A
2

Nature of Matter?
End of 19 th Century:
It was believed that MATTER and ENERGY are different
Particles:
Mass; momentum;
Localized (position specified)
Waves:
Massless; delocalized
BUT WAS THIS REALLY TRUE?

The Answer turns out to be No
No Intermingling between the two forms
?!! UV-Catastrophe
Planck:
AE = nh v
Planck constant
h = 6.626 10
-34
j.s
n = 1, 2, 3, 4
v frequency s
-1

Meaning:
Energy is quantized
heat
UV-Catastrophe: significant historical importance
blackbody
Planck Contribution
Quantization of Energy--
Max Planck: (summer
of 1900)
AE = n h v
Planck constant
h = 6.626 10
-34
j.s
n = 1, 2, 3, 4
v frequency s
-1

Energy transfer in matter is quantized
Energy is absorbed and emitted
in discrete quanta
Each has an energy = h v = hc

The Photoelectric Effect
Increasing the intensity of light increased the number of photoelectrons, but
not their maximum kinetic energy.
Red light will not cause the ejection of electrons from Na, however much the
intensity is increased.
A weak violet light will eject only a few electrons, but their maximum kinetic
energy is greater than those ejected by intense light of longer wavelengths.
Explained by
Einstein
Summary of experimental results from the
photoelectric effect
Electrons are not ejected when light shined is
below a minimal frequency, called the
threshold frequency v
o

The kinetic energy increased as the frequency
of light increased above v
o
The magnitude of current was independent of
v but increased as the intensity of light
increases
The kinetic energy of the e was independent of
the light intensity

DUAL NATURE of LIGHT
Wave-Particle Duality

Albert Einstein (Nobel Prize 1921):
Light long thought of as waves is now theorized to
consist of a stream of particles called photons:

Each photon has an energy E = h v

Therefore light has a wave nature and a particle nature


In the special theory of relativity (1905): E = mc
2


mc
2
= h c /

mc = h/ m.v = linear momentum, a property of particles

E = h =E
o
+K.E.= h
o
+ mv
2
Kinetic energy of the electron
Threshold frequency
(620 nm)
Comptons experiment (1922)
Collisions between
X-rays and electrons
showed that photons
actually have
momentum as
calculated by formula:

mc = h/

Evidence of the particle nature of light:
Oscillating electron:
vibrates with the frequency
as the beam of the waves
It was thought before that scattering takes place
as follows:
Emits a spherical wave
of the same frequency
Beam of radiation
The particle nature of the photon (therefore particle-particle collision)
explained why the scattered X-rays had a different frequency than the
incident X-rays.
Summary: what do we know so far?
1. Energy quantization: energy can be
absorbed or emitted by matter in
discrete units called quanta (quantum)

2. Light has particulate and wave nature,
known as the dual nature of light