Motivation

M.L.Khabir
Why an earth you
are here at 8 am or
6.30 pm ??
Motivation
Motivation can be explored from three distinct
but related perspectives:
What are the main motives for our behaviour?
Wealth, status, power. This perspective views
motivation in terms of desired goals. (content
theories)
why do we choose to pursue certain goals ? (process
theory)
How can we motivate you to work harder? This
perspective views motivation as a social influence
process (job enrichment theories)
Drive
Drives are innate, biological determinants of
behaviour, activated by deprivation.
We appear to have an innate need for
survival, we need oxygen, water, food etc.
We do not learn how to be cold, it comes from
our bodies.
Drive
Curiosity The need to explore, to play, to learn
more
Sense making The need to impose meaning and
order on the world around us
Oder and meaning The need for certainty, equity,
consistency, predictability
Effectance or competence The need to exert mastery and
control over the world around us
Self-understanding The need to know who and what we
are
Motive
Motives are socially acquired needs activated
by a desire for their fulfilment.

Drive Motive
Are innate Are learned
Have a psychological basis Have a social basis
Area activated by deprivation Area activated by environment
Are aimed at satiation Are aimed at stimulation
What is Motivation
Motivation is the cognitive decision process
through which goal-directed behaviour is
initiated, energized and directed, and
maintained.
Content theories of motivation
Theories of motivation that focus on the goals
to which we aspire are known as content
theories, as they reveal the contents of the
motives compartment in our mental luggage
Maslow (1971), Alderfer (1972), Ritchie and
Martin (1999) worked on content theory of
motivation
transcendence
aesthetic
Knowing and understanding
Esteem
affiliation
safety
Biological requirements
Freedom of enquiry and
expression

Self actualization
Maslows hierarchy
A need is not an effective motivator until
those lower in the hierarchy are more or less
satisfied.
A satisfied need is not a motivator.
Lack of need satisfaction can affect mental
health. Consider the frustration, anxiety and
depression that can arise from lack of self
esteem etc.
Maslows hierarchy
We have an innate desire to work our way up
the hierarchy, pursuing the satisfaction of our
higher-order needs once our basic or lower-
order needs are more or less satisfied.
The experience of self- actualization stimulates
desire for more. Maslow claims that self
actualization have peak experience.
Self actualization is the desire for personal
fulfilment, to develop ones potential, to become
everything that one is capable of becoming.
Cultural side of Maslows work
Maslows hierarchy The hierarchy of needs in China
Self-actualization Safety and security
Esteem Sense of belongingness and love
Love and affiliation Esteem, family and tradition
Safety & security Self-actualization
Physiological Physiological
Criticism of Maslow
It is vague and cannot readily predict
behaviour.
It is perhaps a social philosophy reflecting
American middle class.
Alderfers ERG
Existence needs: physiological and safety
needs;
Relatedness needs: affiliation and esteem
needs;
Growth needs: self-actualization needs
ERG theory states that all the three needs can be
present at the same time in contrast to
progression theory of Maslow.
Ritchie and Martin
12 motivational drivers:
Interest Power and influence
Achievement Social contact
Recognition Money and tangible rewards
Self development Structure
Variety and change Relationships
Creativity Physical conditions
Equity theory (Process theory)
Equity theory is a process theory of
motivation which argues that the perception
of unfairness in a social or organizational
setting leads to tension, which in turn
motivates the individual to act to resolve that
unfairness.
Equity theory
Strategies for reducing inequity

1. Alter your outcomes I will pursue the manager to
increase my payment
2. Adjust your input I wont work as hard as Anna
3. Alter the comparison persons
outcome
I will pursue the manager to cut
Annas pay
4. Alter the comparison persons
input
I will leave difficult tasks to Anna
5. Compare with someone else Li gets the same as I get
6. Rationalize the inequity Anna has worked much here for
much longer
7. Leave I will get another job
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory is a process theory of
motivation which argues that the strength or
force of an individuals motivation to perform
well is expressed as the product of the valence
of the outcome from that behaviour, the
expectancy that the effort would lead to good
performance and the Instrumentality of good
performance in leading to valued outcomes.
Simplified Expectancy Theory






Bottom Line: All three links between the boxes must be
intact or motivation will not occur. Thus,
Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
If they perform, they will be rewarded and
When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they care
about.
Expectancy theory
F = V X I X E
Expectancy theory
Valence concerns the perceived value or
degree of preference that an individual has for
a particular outcome. As one either seek or
avoid certain outcomes, or be ambivalent
about them, valence can be positive, negative
or neutral.
Expectancy theory
Expectancy concerns the individuals
perceived likelihood that effort will result in
good performance. As a subjective probability,
expectancy can be measured on a scale of 0
(no chance) to 1 (certainty)
Expectancy theory
Instrumentality concerns the individuals
perceived likelihood that good performance
will lead to valued rewards. As a subjective
probability instrumentality can be measured
on a scale of 0 (no chance) to 1 (certainty)
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory states that behaviour
results from a conscious decision-making
process based on the individuals subjective
probability
It helps to explain individual differences in
motivation and behaviour, unlike Maslows
universal theory of motivation.
It provides a basis for measuring the strength
or force of the individuals motivation to
behave in particular ways.
It assumes that behaviour is rational
Goal setting theory
It is both a process theory of motivation as
well as a motivational technique based on the
argument that work performance can be
explained with reference to characteristics of
the objectives being pursued, such as goal
difficulty, goal specificity and knowledge of
results.
Goal setting theory (contd.)
Goal difficulty: set goals for work performance
at levels which will stretch employees, but
which are not beyond their ability levels.
Goal specificity : express goals in clear and
precise language, if possible in quantifiable
terms and avoid setting vague and ambiguous
goals.
Participation: allow employees to take part in
the goal setting process to increase the
acceptability of and their commitment to
goals.
Goal setting theory (contd.)
Acceptance: if goals are set by management,
ensure that they are adequately explained and
justified so that those concerned understand
and accept them.
Feedback: provide information on the results
of past performance to allow employees to
adjust their behaviour, if necessary, to
improve future performance.
Job enrichment
Job enrichment is a technique for broadening
the experience of work to enhance employee
need satisfaction and to improve work
motivation and performance.
Fredrick Herzbergs work on job enrichment
theory is probably the most significant in the
field of motivation.
Two factor theory
Motivator factor:
Those aspects of work which lead to high levels of
job satisfaction, motivation and performance.
Hygiene factor
those aspects of work which remove job
dissatisfaction but which do not contribute to
performance and motivation.
Motivator factors (content) Hygiene factors (context)
Achievement Pay
Advancement Company policy
Growth Supervisor style
Recognition Status
Responsibility Security
The work itself Working conditions
Two factor theory
Is it also culture bound ?
Rewards
Intrinsic rewards are valued outcomes of
benefits which come from within the
individual, such as feeling of satisfaction,
competence, self-esteem and
accomplishments.
Extrinsic rewards are valued outcomes or
benefits provided by others, such as
promotion, pay increases, a bigger office desk,
praise and recognition.
The Job Characteristics Model
Job Design Theory
Job Characteristics Model
Identifies five job
characteristics and their
relationship to personal
and work outcomes
Characteristics
1. Skill variety: The degree to
which a job requires a variety
of different activities
2. Task identity: The degree to
which the job requires
completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work
3. Task significance: The
degree to which the job has a
substantial impact on the
lives or work of other people
4. Autonomy: The degree to
which the job provides
substantial freedom and
discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to
be used in carrying it out
5. Feedback: The degree to
which carrying out the work
activities required by a job
results in the individual
obtaining direct and clear
information about the
effectiveness of his or her
performance

Job Design Theory (cont.)
Job Characteristics Model
Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states of employees:
Knowledge of results
Meaningfulness of work
Personal feelings of responsibility for results
Increases in these psychological states result in increased
motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

Examples of High and Low Job
Characteristics
Characteristics Examples
High variety
.
Low variety
The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
High identity
.
Low identity
A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds
the object, and finishes it to perfection.
A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
High significance
Low significance
Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit.
Sweeping hospital floors
High autonomy
.
Low autonomy
A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation.
A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
High feedback
.
Low feedback
An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it
Performance = f(A x M x O)