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Chapter 01
Measurement and Error
Mohd Khairul Muzhafar Bin Hj. Md Nor
By :
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Synopsis

MEASUREMENT introduces students to the basic
concept of electrical instrument and measurement. It
covers the basic principles, safety precautions, meter
calibration and use of instruments for measurement such
as analogue meters, DC meters, electronic analogue
meters, analogue and digital multimeters, oscilloscopes,
signal generators and power meters. It also covers the
basic concept and simple application of DC bridge.

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Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this course, students
should be able to:-
Explain correctly terms and standards used
in measurement.

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Summary

Instrument a device or mechanism used
to determine the present value of a quantity
Measurement a process of comparing an
unknown quantity with an accepted
standard quantity.
Standard an instrument or device having a
recognized permanent (stable) value that is
used as a reference.
INSTRUMENTATION &
MEASUREMENTS (BEE 1313)
Measurement

A process to present an observer with a numerical value
corresponding to the variable being measured by using
appropriate instrument
Basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as
well as the controlling process
Eg: thermometers, multimeter, etc
Measurement
system
Input
Output
True value
of variable
Measured value
of variable
Principle of Measurements
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Elements of Measurement System
Primary sensing element
- non-electrical input & output such as a spring, manometer or may
have an electrical input & output such as a rectifier

Variable conversion element
- which is in the form of electrical signal (voltage or current, frequency
or some other electrical parameter), may not suit to the system.

Variable manipulation element
- manipulate the signal presented to it while preserving the original
nature of the signal.

Data presentation element
- information regarding measurand (quantity to be measured) is to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose

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Base Units of Measurement
Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Length l meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Temperature T kelvin
o
K
Electric current I ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
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Electrical Units
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.
Voltage (emf) V volt V
Charge Q coulomb C
Resistance R Ohm
Capacitance C farad F
Inductance L henry H
Above electrical units are derived from standard unit of
measure for electric current
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Error in Measurement
There are various types of error in
measurement:
Gross error
Systematic error
Random error
Absolute error
Relative error

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Error in Measurement

What is the meaning of error?
Please define.
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Error in Measurement
Error - The difference or
deviation from the true value
of the measurable quantity.
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% Error = true value - measured value 100%
true value






% Accurate = 100% - % Error

Refer to the circuit below, calculate the error percentage and
accurate percentage if meter ampere show the value of 6 mA.





1K
15V
mA
2K
Error in Measurement
INSTRUMENTATION &
MEASUREMENTS (BEE 1313)
Example 1.1
The expected value of the voltage across a
resistor is 5.0 V. However, measurement
yields a value of 4.9 V. Calculate:
a) absolute error = (5 V 4.9 V)
b) % error = (5 V- 4.9V / 5 V) X 100%
c) relative accuracy = % accuracy x real
value
d) % accuracy = 100 % - % error
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Error in Measurement
Errors are generally categorized
under the following three (3) major
headings:
Gross Errors
Systematic Errors
Random Errors
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Error in Measurement
1.Gross Error

Generally the fault of the person using the
instruments
Such as incorrect reading, incorrect recording,
incorrect use, improper use of instruments, etc.
To minimize:
take at least 3 separate reading
take proper care in reading & recording
taking care in using and reading all
instruments.

Error in Measurement
iii) Systematic Error
due to instruments problem or environmental
effects or observational errors
example???
defective or worn parts
ageing
parallax error
wrong estimation reading scale
Instrumental errors
Environmental errors
Observational errors
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Error in Measurement
2.Systematic Error
Devide into two different categories:-
i) Instrumental errors are errors inherent in measuring
instrument because of their electrical and mechanical
structure. Example : stretching of the spring.
Instrumental error may be avoided by :-
1) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application.
2) Calibrating the instrument against a standard.

ii) Environmental errors are due to condition external to
the measuring device, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument. Example :temperature,
humidity and air pressure.
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Error in Measurement
3.Random Errors

These errors are due to unknown causes and occur
even when all systematic errors have been accounted
for.
This variation cannot be corrected by any method of
calibration or other known method of control.
Random errors may be avoided by increasing the
number of reading and using statistical means to
obtain the best approximation of the true table of the
quantity under measurement.
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ABSOLUTE ERROR AND RELATIVE ERROR
If resistor is known to have a resistance of 500 with a
possible error of 50, the 50 is an Absolute
error.
Relative error is a percentage or as a fraction of the
total resistance .
Example: Measured voltage = 20 V 0.1%
(Relative error)
= 20 V 0.02V
(Absolute error)
Percentages are usually employed to express errors in
resistances and other electrical quantities.

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Error in Measurement
Absolute errors.
Absolute errors maybe defined as the
difference between the expected value of the
variable and the measured value of the
variable, or
e = Yn Xn
where:
e = absolute error.
Yn = expected value.
Xn = measured value
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Error in Measurement
Example 2
The expected value of the voltage
across a resistor is 5.0 V. However,
measurement yields a value of 4.9 V.
Calculate:
a) absolute error
b) % error
c) % accuracy
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CHARACTERISTIC OF MEASUREMENT
Accuracy The degree of exactness
of a measurement compared to the
expected value
Precision A measure of consistency,
or repeatability of measurements
Resolution The smallest change in
measured quantity that can be
observed.


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CHARACTERISTIC OF MEASUREMENT
Significant figure An indication of the
measurement is obtained from the number
of significant figures in which the result is
expressed. Significant figures convey actual
information regarding the magnitude and
the measurement precision of a quantity.
The more significant, the greater the
precision of measurement.

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Measurement Standards
Measurement Standards are classified in four
level :-
International standards.
Primary standards.
Secondary standards.
Working standards.

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International standards.

Are defined by international agreement , and
are maintained at the International Bureau of
Weight and Measure in France.
These are as accurate as it is scientifically
possible to achieve.
They may be used for comparison with primary
standard, but otherwise unavailable for any
application.


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Primary Standard

Are maintained at institutions in various
countries around the world, such as the
National Bureau of Standards in Washington.
These are as accurate as it is scientifically
possible to achieve.
They are also constructed for the greatest
possible accuracy , and their main function is
checking the accuracy of secondary standard.


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Secondary standard

Are periodically checked at the institutions the
maintain primary standards.
Are employed in industry as reference for
calibrating high accuracy equipment and
component and for verify the accuracy of
working standards.


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Working Standard

The working standards are the principal
tools of a measurement laboratory.They are
used to checked and calibrated general
laboratory instrument for accuracy and
performance or to perform comparison
measurement industrial application.


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Summary
Secondary standards are more accurate than
working standard and are used throughout
industry for checking working standards and for
calibrating high accuracy equipment.
Primary standards are more accurate than
secondary standards.They are maintained to
the highest possible accuracy by national
institutions as references for calibrating
secondary standards.
International Standards are maintained by
international agreement and may be used for
checking primary standards.