1

Yellow Belt Course

Six Sigma Training
2
Eighty-five percent of the reasons or failure to meet customer expectations are
related to deficiencies in systems and process rather than the employee. The
role of management is to change the process rather than badgering individuals to
do better.
- W. Edwards Deming
Six Sigma
If we cant express what we know in
the form of numbers, we really dont
know much about it. If we dont know
much about it, we cant control it. If we
cant control it, we are at the mercy of
chance.
-Mikel J. Harry
Six Sigma will bring GE to a whole new
level of quality in a fraction of the time it
would have taken to climb the learning
curve on our own.



Jack Welch
Six Sigma is a Rigorous Method for Measuring, Improving &
Controlling Our Process Performance
3
1998
GE reports a revenue
of $ 17 bn and
Savings of 70% from
Six Sigma
1988-89
Adopted by GE
having contemporary
revenue of $1 bn
1985-94
Motorola saves USD
2.00 bn. in bottom-
line
1988
Motorola wins
Baldridge Award
1981
Introduced by
Motorola in response
to Japanese
competition
Landmarks
4
Companies Implementing Six Sigma
5
Companies Implementing Six Sigma (Cont..)
6
6-Sigma is a Methodology to significantly improve
customer satisfaction and shareholder value by
reducing variability in every aspect of our business.
6-Sigma is not something else that you do it is
what you do.

Passion + Execution = Fast and Lasting Results
What is Six Sigma ?
7
A philosophy which mandates operational excellence

A business strategy

A set of tools designed to reduce variation in processes
and operations

A statistical measure of a process capability - 3.4
defects per million opportunity - 99.99966 % Probability
of passing Non defective products to Customer

World class quality
.... A challenge, but others have
achieved.
What is Six Sigma ?
8
What is Six Sigma ?
Metric
Goal
Locomotive
Way of Life
Culture
Benchmark
6
9
Addresses Size
Enhances Execution Quality
Tightly clubbed in with the customer
Helps benchmark against the global best
Objective, Data based measurable, drives cont. improvement
Established yet allows innovation and adaptability
Why Six Sigma ?
Credible Methodology Culture Change
10
If your process does not include Continuous Improvement and your
competitors does, you cannot stay in business
Suppose a competitor systematically improves productivity at a
relatively modest annual rate of 7%, year over year, while your
productivity remains static. After only 3 years, the productivity
differential is (1.07)
3
= 1.21, a 21% advantage
Changing market reality:
Old Paradigm: Cost + Profit = Selling Price
New Paradigm : Selling Price - Cost = Profit
6-Sigma process produce only 3.4 DPMO or 99.9997% error-free.
Typical Software Processes operate between 2.3 & 3.0 sigma
The Best Software Processes operate at 4 to 5 sigma
Why Six Sigma (contd)?
11
Why Six Sigma?
Strategy
Discipline
What was
missing --
Six Sigma!
Philosophy &
Vision
Quality Vision
existed for years
(ISO, Zero defects)
Tools &
Techniques

Many tools existed for
years
(statistics,DOE...)
12
Six Sigma People Power + Process Power
Management Discipline Focused on improvement areas
Breakthrough Strategy
Constant Process Improvement to achieve customer delight
Driven by data on customer relevant metrics
Focus on sustenance vs. quick fix
3.4 Defects Per Million Opportunities (99.99966% Yield)
Customers view towards out contribution
Our perspective
Our process
Customers process
13
Six Sigma Statistical objectives
Center
Process
Reduce
Spread
Target
USL LSL
Reduce Variation & Center ProcessCustomers feel the
variation more than the mean
Process Off Target
Target
USL LSL
Excessive Variation
Target
USL LSL
14
Goal of Six Sigma
To reduce Variation

To reduce defects

To improve yield

To enhance Customer Satisfaction

To improve the Bottomline

15
Six Sigma in practical terms
99.99966% Good (6 Sigma)
20,000 lost e- mails per hour

Unsafe drinking water for almost
15 minutes each day

5,000 incorrect surgical operations
per week

Two short or long landings at most
major airports each day

200,000 wrong drug prescriptions
each year

No electricity for almost seven
hours each month
Seven e-mails lost per hour

One unsafe minute every seven
months

1.7 incorrect operations per week


One short or long landing every
five years

68 wrong prescriptions per year


One hour without electricity every
34 years
98.930%Good (3.8 Sigma)
16
Improvement mechanism
Logic and intuition
Quick fixes-Kaizen
Low hanging fruits
Simple QC tools
Bulk of fruits
Process characterization
and optimization
(DMAIC)
Process
Entitlement
Sweet fruits
DFSS
Increase of sigma rating requires an exponential decrease in defect reduction
2s
4s
3s
17
Six Sigma methodology identifies processes that are off-target,
and/or have a high degree of variation, and corrects the process
Off-Target Variation
On-Target
Center
Process
Reduce
Spread
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Six Sigma Problem Solving Objective
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
18
A specification is a customer-defined tolerance for the output unit characteristics

Specifications can be one sided or two sided
Specifications form the basis of any defect measurement exercise





Specification example: Resolution of P1 tickets with 2 hours
USL: Upper Specification Limit for Y,
anything above this is a defect.
LSL: Lower Specification Limit for Y,
anything below this is a defect.
Target: Ideally the middle point of USL & LSL.

LSL Target USL
Six Sigma Problem Solving Objective
19
High
Probability
of Failure
66807 Defects
Per Million
Opportunities
Much Lower
Probability
of Failure
3.4 Defects
Per Million
Opportunities

6
2
s
1
6
2
s
Mean / Target
Lower
Specification Limit
Upper
Specification Limit
Higher this
number,
Lower the
chance of
producing a
defect

Higher these
numbers,
Lower the
chance of
producing a
defect
1
3
1
s 3
1
s
Six Sigma Problem Solving Objective
20

6-Sigma as a Goal

-20 -10 0 10 20
Consider below performance on On time delivery
Target 0 days
Mean 0.70 days
On Target !!!! Good Performance ??
21

6-Sigma as a Goal

-20 -10 0 10 20
What customer sees!!
Customer always looks at , mean is meaningless variance
22
A Scientific Management Tool & Philosophy, One Of Its Kind
Six Sigma - Approach
23
Six Sigma - Approach
To get results should we focus on Y or X?
Y
Dependent variable
Output of the process
Effect
Symptom
It is monitored
X
1
, X
2
, .., X
n
Independent variable
Input to the process
Cause
Problem
It is controlled
Y = f(X)
24
Defects per million
opportunities
2 308,537
3 66,807
4 6,210
5 233
6 3.4

6-Sigma as a Goal

25
As long as there is a process that produces an output whether it is
a manufactured product, data, an invoice, etc... we can apply the
Six Sigma Breakthrough Strategy. For these processes to perform
to a customer standard they require correct inputs!!!
6 Sigma
Methods
MFG..
DESIGN
SERVICE
PURCH.
MAINT.
ADMIN.
QA
Marketing
Which Business Function Needs It?
26
Executive Leadership (Part-Time)
Project Champion (Part-Time)
Black Belt (Full-Time Quality Champions)
Green Belt (Part-Time)
Master Black Belt (Full-Time)
Deployment Structure
27
What is
important
How are
we doing
What is
wrong
What
needs to
be done
How do we
guarantee
performance
M

Measure
Performance
A

Analyze
Opportunity
I

Improve
Performance
C

Control
Performance
D

Define
Opportunities
M

Measure
A

Analyze
D

Design
V

Verify
D

Define
For Existing Processes (DMAIC)
For new Design & new Processes (DMADV/DFSS )
Six Sigma Methodology
28
DMAIC
29
DMAIC Methodology
Customer-driven,
consistent,
metrics focused,
results oriented
Define the opportunity
Measure the
current performance
Control and adjust
new processes
Implement Process
efficiency
Analyze the
current processes
Project Charter/Stakeholder Analysis
VOC/CTQ
Measurable business objectives
Linkage to business strategy
Process Maps

CTQ Specification
Pareto Analysis
Sigma Calculation
Root Cause-Effect
Diagram
Scatter Diagrams
Benchmarking
Value-added
Analyses
Brainstorming
Storyboarding
Cost/Benefit
Pilot Testing
Control Chart
Process/Project
Management Chart
Sigma Calculation

Control Chart
Histogram
Storyboard
Sigma Calculation
30
Define Phase - Flow
Project Charter
Problem Statement:
Goal:
Business Case:
Scope:
Cost Benefit Projection:
Milestones:
Develop charter to include project
description, baseline measures,
business results, team members,
and schedule. Use Benchmarking
as appropriate to establish some
of the initial targets.
VOC Key Issue CTQ
Delighters
More Is Better
Must Be
Gather / display
data verifying
customer needs
and requirements
VOC
Outputs Process
SIPOC
S
U
P
P
L
I
E
R
S
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
S
Inputs
Complete high-level as is
process map and analyze
yield to identify the process
step with the highest impact
Business Case
Explain why it is
important to work
on this project
Yield: 60%
Yield: 90%
Yield: 45%
Yield: 98%
31
Define Roadmap
Define Measure Analyze Improve Control
Charter
Determine
CTQs
Map
Process
1)The Team
2) Business Case
3) Problem
statement
4) Project Goals
5) Scope
6) Milestones
1)Identify customers
2)Gather VOC data
3)Organize VOC
data
4)Translate needs to
CTQs
5) Establish Project
Y
1) Process Definitions.
2) Connecting the
Supplier/ Customer to
Your Process.
3) SIPOC
Deliverables
32
Project Charter
A team charter is a written document and works as an agreement
between Sponsor and the team about what is expected from the
project
WHY?
Clarifies what is expected of the team.
Keeps the team focused.
Keeps the team aligned with
organizational priorities.
Transfers the project from the
Sponsor(s) to the project team.
33
Project Charter
Project Importance (Business Case): Why is it Essential that this
Project be done now and what will be the benefits for the
Organization. How will this project improve quality, cycle time,
cost, customer satisfaction.
Metrics Current/Baseline Goal
Problem Description (Quantified) :Describe the
burning platform Impact & severity of the problem on the
process/organization

Project Goal / Objective: What is this Project Going to achieve ?

Projected Business Benefits: Include both tangible and non
tangible Benefits/Deliverables
Project Risk/Dependencies :Identify all potential risks that will
impact the project. Identify FE/BE/Customer/IT /Process
dependencies
Project Scope: Boundaries
In Scope What area / process is the project focusing for
Improvement. Entities /regions/Activities that will be impacted

Out of Scope: Entities/regions/activity not addressed by the project
34
Project Charter
Project Importance (Business Case): It was observed during
Service Delivery Review for XYZ customer that there is a increasing
trend in P1 tickets volume. P1 tickets have bigger impact on
Customer infrastructure and hence the P1 SLAs are very stringent.
Huge volume of P1 tickets increases the cost of delivery.
Metrics

Cost of
Operations
Current/Baseline

$50000 per annum
Goal

$40000
p.a.
Problem Description (Quantified) : Average volume of P1 tickets
during Jan-Feb-Mar 08 was found to be 60% of overall ticket
volumes. Such volume of P1 tickets is extremely high and there is a
risk SLA slippage which causes Customer dissatisfaction.
P1 SLA
80% >95%
Project Goal / Objective: Reduce P1 tickets volume to 20% # of P1
Tickets
Average 600 per
month
Avg
200 per
month
Projected Business Benefits:
Productivity gain
Improved SLA
Customer Satisfaction

# FTEs
P1 SLA
C-Sat Rating


4
80%
3

Redn of
1 FTE
>95%
4
Project Risk/Dependencies : Need help from Customer IT Team on
policy redefinitions
Project Scope: Boundaries
In Scope: Only tickets generated from EMEA Region would be
targeted for improvement
Out of Scope: Tickets generated from other regions
35

A Business Case:

Asks Why should we do the project?

Lists the benefits like

Reduction of Rework cost
Increase in Customer Satisfaction
Decrease in costs
Reduction in Manpower
Reduction in cycle-time
Increased business opportunities
Example:

CTQ Cycle time of loans processing
Reduction in cycle time of loan processing will increase in the number of loans processed which
will beat the competitors hence acquiring more customers leading to increased market share. This
will result in higher business revenues for the bank.
Going Forward
D
E
F
I
N
E
36
Problem Statement

Should address only the CTQ

Should be short, clear & crisp

Should address

Since when is the problem seen

What is the problem

How much is the problem

Example:
CTQ Cycle time of Loans processing
From Jan-04 to Apr-04 (Since When), the cycle time for loan processing has increased
(What) from 4 days to 9 days (How Much)
Going Forward
D
E
F
I
N
E
37
Problem Statement
D
E
F
I
N
E
Good Example:
In the last 3 months, 12% of our customers are late, by over 45 days in
paying their bills. This represents 20% of our outstanding receivables &
negatively affects our operating cash flow.
Poor Example:
Our customers are angry with us and thus delay paying their bills.
What
When
Magnitude
Consequence
38
Well defined project

Has a clearly defined problem statement
Is clearly linked to customer CTQs
Is relevant to the business and will have
positive impact
Has a clearly defined and measurable
defect
Is manageable in scope
Resources identified
Problem Statement:
Goal:
Business Case:
Scope:
Cost Benefit Projection:
Milestones:
39
CTQ (Critical To Quality)
A CTQ is a
Product or Service
characteristic
that satisfies a
Customer Requirement
OR
Process Requirement
Business CTQ
Customer CTQ
Internal CTQ
Project CTQ
40
All repetitive activities can be represented as a process

All processes have measurable characteristics

All measurable characteristics are represented as a frequency
distribution

The most common frequency distribution is a Normal distribution
Concept of a Process
41
Define your customer
Six Sigma begins with the customer
Customers find it easier to define what they do not want
Customer CTQs are defined by customers
Sources of customer CTQs
Survey results
Service reviews
Meetings


42
Voice Of The
Customer (VOC)
Determine
CTQs
A Process To Identify Customers And Understand Their CTQs
List
customers
Define
customer
segments
Narrow list
Organize all customer data
Translate VOC to specific
needs
Define CTQs for
specific needs
Prioritize CTQs
Contain problem if necessary
Review existing
VOC data
Decide what to
collect/ select VOC
tools
Collect data
Identify
Customers
Steps to determine CTQs
43
Define your customer
INTERNAL
INTERMEDIATE
FINAL
Business
Management
Employees
Department
Suppliers
Partners
Channel


End customers
Shareholders
Regulators
44
Define your customer
What does my
customer need
from our
process?
How would my
customer like
for our process
to perform?
How is our
process
performance
from the
customer
perspective?
How does my
customer
measure my
process?
How does my
customer view
my process?
What can we
do better?
Customer Centricity
45
Define your customer
Revenues and profits
come from
Customers,
not products.
46
What to collect?
Customer satisfaction with
what you provide today
What the customer wants based on his/her
true need (regardless of what your process
is capable of producing)
Whats
important
to you?
How Am I
Doing?
47
Review existing VOC data
Avoid duplication of effort for both you and the customer
Customer
Project Team 1
Project Team 2
Project Team 3
Surveys
Personal Visits
Questionnaires
Interviews
Phone Calls
48
Common tools for gathering VOC data
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Interviews Information obtained from customers
either by telephone or in person.
Detailed
information
Follow up
Expensive
Talent of the
interviewer
Surveys
(Most
common tool
used in
BPDO)

A set of written questions that is sent to
selected customers to obtain information
that can be formatted into data
Objective data
Easy to
interpret
Poor response
rate
Different answers
based on type of
questions
Focus groups A collection of customers who answer
questions from a facilitator
Follow-up
questions
Observing non-
verbal behaviors
Expensive
Skill of the facilitator
Observing
the Customer
Seeing the customer using your product
or service
Unfiltered
information

No follow up

Complaints Information obtained while
someone complains about a
situation

Opportunity to
make amends
Few people
complain
49
Define your customer
Translating VOC into CTQs Some Examples
Customer Need

1. Rapid delivery


2. Liberal returns policy




3. Friendly customer service at
hotel
CTQs

1. Orders delivered within 3 working
days of purchase order receipt

2. Any returned item retailing for les
than $1000 accepted with no
questions and with full cash
refund

3. Greet guest within 20 secs of
entry into lobby;address all
guests with Mr. or Ms & last name
etc
50
Define your customer
From High-Level To Specific Needs
High-Level
Need
(VOC)
Service/
Quality
Issue
Specific
Needs
Statement
Output
Characteristic
The Needs Statement Leads to Defining the 4 elements of the CTQ
51
VOC -> CTQ Translation Matrix
D
E
F
I
N
E
Index Define Phase
V
o
i
c
e

o
f

C
u
s
t
o
m
e
r

(
V
O
C
)

Tool
VOC Table
52
VOC -> CTQ Translation Matrix
Index Define Phase
Voice of the
customer
ID Who Voice What When Where Why How
1
Registered
Users
Convenience of
Bill Payment at
home
Avoid the trouble
of physical Bill
payment
As per
billing
cycle
At
respective
payment
counter
Not
enough
time
Online
Payment
Application to be
run on standard
browsers
Application to be
run on IE or NS
From any
location
which has
internet
Java
Electricity,
water, telephone
At fixed
frequency
As per
billing
cycle
Secure txn.
Using credit
cards
To avoid
the misuse
of credit
cards
Digital
certificate
Voice of Customer Table
53
Return to charter
After you have identified your CTQs, refer back to the
charter and revise as necessary

Does your CTQ relate to the problem?

Do you need to rewrite or revise any of the sections?

54
VOC -> CTQ Translation Matrix
D
E
F
I
N
E
Voice of the
Customer
Key Issue Need Statement CTQ Output
Characteristic
Poor resolution
Of incidents

Resolution time is
Not as per
customer
requirement,
quality of
resolution is bad
Reduce turn-around-
Time of incidents,
Good quality of
resolution
Improve MTTR from
6.5 hours to 3 hours,
Reduce re-opening of
Incidents from 20% to
0%
Index Define Phase
55
Select Project Y CTQ/Project Y matrix
Index Define Phase
Example
Process: Ordering Pizza
Primary output (product or service): Delivery of Pizza
Strong relationship
Strong indication of the extent to which requirement is met
Moderate relationship
Weak relationship
Potential Project Y Measures
CTQ Output Characteristic
T
i
m
e

f
r
o
m

o
r
d
e
r

t
o

d
e
l
i
v
e
r
y

#

o
f

c
o
m
p
l
a
i
n
t
s

a
b
o
u
t

w
r
o
n
g

o
r
d
e
r

C
u
s
t
o
m
e
r

f
e
e
d
b
a
c
k

s
c
o
r
e

T
e
m
p

o
f

P
i
z
z
a

a
t

t
i
m
e

o
f

d
e
l
i
v
e
r
y

On time delivery of Pizza
Pizza as per the order
Pizza that is hot
CPR #
Customer Priority
Rank Number
56
CTQ Drill Down Tree
Cycle time for recruitment
Need
identification
time
Time for
advertisement
Interview
process
time
Joining
time
Shortlisting
time
Interview
time
CTQ Tools Drill Down Tree
Index Define Phase
57
Customers & Suppliers
D
E
F
I
N
E
Index Define Phase
My
suppliers
suppliers
processes
My
suppliers
processe
s
My
customers
customers
processes
My
customers
processes
My
processes
Inputs from
suppliers
Outputs to
customers
Chain of customers and suppliers
58
SIPOC Diagram Example
Receive ticket
Check whether
it belongs to
our Queue
If yes, Ack the
ticket and
assign it to FTE
Resolve the
ticket
Closure in the
Ticketing Tool


NSS
Vendors




Tickets thru
a Tool (P1/P2
/P3/P4 and
L1/ L2 /L3)
Incident,
Problem,
Change ticket
Supplier
Input
Incident resolution

Ticket closure



XYZ





Output
Customer
Incident Resolution
59
SIPOC Questions to be asked
Purpose
Why does this process exist?
What is the purpose of this process?
What is the outcome?
Outputs
What product does this process make?
What are the outputs of this process?
At what point does this process end?
Customers
Who uses the products from this
process?
Who are the customers of this
process?
Inputs/Suppliers
Where does the information
or material you work on come
from? Who are your
suppliers?
What do they supply?
Where do they affect the
process flow?
What effect do they have on
the process and on the
outcome?

Process steps
What happens to each input?
What conversion activities
take place?
60
SIPOC Diagram Example
61
Process mapping
62
Process Mapping - Example
Request
Vendor for
outstanding
payments
Send goods
to HP
Send invoices to HP
Mail Roomat
Singapore
Send documents after
scanning
Receive invoice for processing
1
Upload
TIVPTeamat
Bangalore
Query management
Information
Systems
SAP 2
Last updated on 05
th
November 2003
Daily Daily Daily processing
8
7 & 8
Vendors
Check the
scanned invoices for
Invalid PO#, legal
requirements and
clarity of invoices
Request
for rescan /
Return To Vendor
(RTV)
Business
Unclear or
incomplete
information
on invoices
Respond to
queries
Complete
information
received
Enter the invoice information
received for processing
Invoice Processing
Daily processing
Clear Block
docs
Invoices Ready
for Payment
Invoices with Price
/ Qty variance
blocked for payment Invoices with
correct
information
is processed
PerformQC and
validate data
captured
Capture information of the
Goods Receipt (GR s)
5
4
6
Payments Team
Bangalore
7
Data processed
for payments
Payments
Per schedule
9
10
11
6
SAP
E-mail
Decision /
Inspection
Manual
process step
Output of the
process
Data in
electronic form
Document in Fax , printout
or in a paper form
SAP
Details provided
in next level
3
Rescan / RTV
RTV
Rescan invoices
4 Futuresoft / MALA
Respond to
queries
Unclear or
incomplete
information
on invoices
11 SAP
PerformQC and
validate data
captured 9
Systemprocesses
the data captured
Outstanding
Payments?
Yes
Write - off
Process
No
TIVP Invoice Management
Start point of
process
Receive goods Invoice Recd?
Yes
No
2
7
8
Currently tracked
Currently not tracked
63
Measure Phase - Flow
I P O
Input
Measures
Process
Measures
Output
Measures
Measures Measures
Develop measures
based on CTQs
and SIPOC map
I1
I2
I3
I4
O1 O2 O3 O4
Funneling
Determine the critical
few measures
Alignment to
BIG Y
Gage R&R
Validate your
measurement system
Col # 1 2 3 4 5 6
Inspector A B
Sample # 1st Trial 2nd Trial Diff 1st Trial 2nd Trial Diff
1 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 0.0
2 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.5 2.5 0.0
3 1.5 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.5 0.5
4 3.0 3.0 0.0 2.0 2.5 0.5
5 2.0 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 1.0
Totals 10.5 9.5 3.0 9.5 8.5 2.0
Averages 2.1 1.9 0.6 1.9 1.7 0.4
Sum 4.0 Sum 3.6
XA 2.0 XB 1.8 R
A
R
B
Display the data in graphic
form to show current
variation and other patterns
Process Capability
Calculate current process
capability and sigma
LSL USL
Cp = 0.4
= 2.7
Data Display
0
1000
-1000
10 20 30
UCL
X
LCL
D B F A C E Other
Data Collection Plan
Operational Definition and Procedures
Data Collection Plan
What questions do you want to answer?
Data
What Measure type/
Data type
How
measured
Related
conditions
Sampling
notes
How/
where
How will you ensure
consistency and stability?
What is your plan for
starting data collection?
How will the data be displayed?
Develop a data
collection plan
64
Why measure?
Measurement allows Teams to
Establish baseline process performance
Isolate sources of variation
Identify areas where improvements can be made

We dont know what we dont know.
If we cant express what we know in the form of numbers,
we really dont know much about it.
If we dont know much about it, we cant control it.
If we cant control it, we are at the mercy of chance.

65
What to measure?
M Measure
E Everything
T That
R Results
I In
C Customer
S Satisfaction

66
Measure Phase - Flow
Input
measures
Process
measures
Output
measures
Define Measure Improve Analyse Control
Data
Collection
Measures
6Sigma &
Process
Capability
Variation
4 step data
collection
process
Graphical
display of
data
Calculate
process
sigma
67
Measure Phase - Flow
Serial No. Activity Typically used Tools
1 Performance Standards
Performance Standards
2 Data Collection Plan
Data Collection Plan
3 Data Collection
Normality Check
Graphical Summary
Run Charts
4 MSA

Gage R & R
5 Base lining the Current
process

Capability Analysis
68
Data Collection Why?
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
What is Data ?
Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary
for any improvement.
-K. Ishikawa
If you are not able to express a phenomenon in
numbers, you do not know about it adequately.
-Lord Kelvin

69
Data Collection Why?
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Binary Ordered
categories
Count
Classified
into one of
two categories
Rankings
or ratings
Counted
discretely
Measured
on a
continuum
or scale
Tossing a Coin
Customer
satisfaction
rating of
Contact center
service
Number of
errors in an
application
Time to
process an
application
Description
Example
Discrete
/ Attribute
Continuous/
Variable
Data
Types
Unordered
categories
No rankings
Types of
products
Time
70
Continuous v/s Discrete Data
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
71
Examples of Continuous & Discrete Data
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Attribute Data
Categories
Yes/No
Go/No Go
Pass/Fail
Good/Defective
Variable Data
Continuous Data
Decimal places show
absolute distance between
numbers
Time
Finance Charges
Length
Width
72
Characteristics Continuous & Discrete Data
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Continuous Data Discrete Data
More Powerful & Sensitive Insensitive
Yields more insight into the process Show if the process is good / bad
Requires Small Sample size Requires large sample size
Use Continuous Data whenever possible
Continuous
73
Data type practice
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
1. The number of suitcases lost by an airline.

2. The height of corn plants.

3. The number of ears of corn produced.

4. The number of green M&M's in a bag.

5. The time it takes for a car battery to die.

6. The production of tomatoes by weight.

7. Lateness of a delivery


8. Defective slabs

9. Overdue accounts

10. Equipment breakdowns

11. Amount of steel melted

12. Cycle time of production

13. Errors on reports

14. % On time payment of invoices


74
Continuous Data Characteristics
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Usually illustrated in tables & histograms / frequency polygons
A histogram or frequency distribution shows the number of data points in a
data set that fall
into each of the frequency classes
A frequency polygon is constructed by connecting the mid-points of each of the
vertical bar
in the Histogram
90 95 100 115 120 125 130
75
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Location / Central Tendency
It is a measure of the center point of any data set
Spread / Dispersion
It is a measure of the spread of any data set around its center
Shape
It is a measure of symmetry of any data set around its center
Continuous Data Characteristics
76
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Mean: Mean is the arithmetic average of all data points in a data set



Mode
Mode is the most frequently occurring data point in a data set (Garment/ Shoes
inventory/ mfg would be based on most common sizes sold rather than mean of
sizes)
Median
Median is the middle data point of a data set arranged in an ascending /
descending order (Management institutes announcing placement packages use
median than average)
Y
1
+ Y
2
+ Y
3
+ . + Y
n
n
Where n = number of data points
Y =
Odd number of data points Even number of data points
Average
Continuous Data Characteristics
77
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Continuous Data Characteristics
Range
Range is the difference between the maximum & minimum data point
Variance / Standard Deviation
Variance & standard deviation measure how individual data points are
spread around mean
( Y
1
- Y )
2
+ ( Y
2
Y )
2
+ . + ( Y
n
Y )
2

( n 1 )
Variance = s
2
=
Standard Deviation = s = s
2
78
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Importance of spread
Mean of Curve A is more representative of its data set as compared to Curves
B & C
Spread outside the specifications may result in defects; this information is not
provided by mean
From a process perspective, individual customers are subject to different
behaviors
of the process
A
B
C
79
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
Its a Probability Distribution, illustrated as N ( , )
Simply put, a probability distribution is a theoretical frequency distribution
Higher frequency of values around the mean & lesser & lesser at values away from
mean
Continuous & symmetrical
Tails asymptotic to X-axis
Bell shaped
Total area under the Normal curve = 1
100 110 120 130 90 80 70
Figure 3.01
1 unit
of
standard
deviation
+
-
Normal Distribution with
Mean =100
Standard Deviation = 10
Origin: German Army
80
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Normal Distribution Property

Figure 3.02
+
-
- 1 + 1
95.46%
- 2 + 2
68.26%
- 3 + 3
99.73%
+ 4
99.9937%
- 5
99.99943%
+ 5
- 6
+ 6
99.999998%
- 4
81
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Concept of Z value
To standardize different measurement units; such as, inches, meters, grams; a
standard Z variable is used.





Where Y = Value of the data point we are concerned with
= Mean of the data points
= Standard Deviation of the data points
Z = Number of standard deviations between Y & the mean
()
Z value is unique for each probability within the normal distribution
It helps in finding probabilities of data points anywhere within the distribution
It is dimensionless
Z =
Y -

82
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Example
Its found that time taken for resolution of customer complaints follow a
normal distribution with mean of 250 hours and standard deviation of 23
hrs. What is the probability that a complaint resolution will take more than
300 hrs?
250 300
Z =
300 - 250
23
= 2.17
Z
83
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
The complete picture
On Center
Large Spread
LSL USL T
On Center
Small Spread

LSL USL T
LSL USL T
Off Center
Small Spread
Off Center
Large Spread
LSL USL T
84
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase Average
Which type of data is preferable?
Continuous data helps you to understand process variation

Sample size required is less



Discrete data does not allow to understand the process variation. It does not tell you how bad is bad

You need larger samples with Discrete data
85
Normality Test
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Data is normal as p-value > 0.05
Effort Based Defect Density
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 -0.01 -0.02
99
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
1
Mean
0.188
0.02714
StDev 0.01890
N 7
AD 0.450
P-Value
Probability Plot of Effort Based Defect Density
Normal
Index Measure Phase
86
Graphical Summary
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Data is normal as p-value > 0.05
Skewness is somewhat close to 0 indicating symmetric data
A negative value of Kurtosis indicates a distribution flatter than normal
0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
Median
Mean
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
Anderson-Darling Normality Test
V ariance 0.000357
Skewness 0.778909
Kurtosis -0.087360
N 7
Minimum 0.010000
A-Squared
1st Quartile 0.010000
Median 0.030000
3rd Quartile 0.040000
Maximum 0.060000
95% Confidence Interv al for Mean
0.009665
0.45
0.044621
95% Confidence Interv al for Median
0.010000 0.045333
95% Confidence Interv al for StDev
0.012178 0.041615
P-V alue 0.188
Mean 0.027143
StDev 0.018898
95% Confidence Intervals
Summary for Effort Based Defect Density
Index Measure Phase
87
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
A country preacher was walking the back-road near a church. He became
thirsty so decided to stop at a little cottage and ask for something to drink. The
lady of the house invited him in and in addition to something to drink, she
served him a bowl of soup by the fire. There was a small pig running around the
kitchen. The pig was constantly running up to the visitor and giving him a great
deal of attention. The visiting pastor commented that he had never seen a pig
this friendly. The housewife replied: "Ah, he's not that friendly. Actually, that's his
bowl you're using!"

Count the Occurrence of letter I in the Paragraph
88
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Ensure Data
Consistency
And Stability
Establish
Data Collection
Goals
Develop
Operational
Definitions
Clarify purpose of
data collection
Identify what data to
collect
Test and validate
measurement systems
Write and pilot
operational definitions
Develop and pilot data
collection forms and
procedures
Establish a sampling
plan
Collect Data
And Monitor
Consistency
Train data collectors
Pilot process and
make adjustments
Collect data
Monitor data
accuracy and
consistency
1
4 3
2
Plan for data collection
89
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
What is Operational Definition?
A definition that gives communicable meaning to a concept by specifying
how the concept is measured and applied within a particular set of
circumstances.
-Deming
To remove ambiguity
Everyone has a consistent understanding
To provide a clear way to measure the characteristic
Identifies what to measure
Identifies how to measure it
Makes sure that no matter who does the measuring, the results are consistent
Always measure one scale lower than your customer measures
90
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Sampling
Sampling is the process of:

Collecting only a portion of the data that is
available or could be available, and drawing
conclusions about the total population
(statistical inference)
Examples :
Blood Test A few drops
of blood is tested to draw
conclusion Cosmetic: A
small sample is applied to
test the reaction
Wine tasting
Buy Fruits/Vegetables



Audits:
Based on the few process/entity audited
effectiveness of QMS is implied

Inspection: A few units are checked and the entire lot
shipped

Election result: Based on the response of few people
results are forecasted

91
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Sampling
Random Sampling:
Each unit (X) has an equal probability of
being selected in a sample

Population Picking 2 Tickets during the shift for
checking SLA compliance
Picking 30 calls to calculate average
TAT
Systematic Random Sampling
Sample every nth Unit

Process
Check every 10
th
Ticket during each
shift for checking Response SLA
compliance

Subgroup Sampling
The population is divided in to subgroups
Process Select 5 tickets resolved by each of
team members during the shift
Stratified Random Sampling
Randomly sample
within a stratified category or group
Population

Select 5 tickets responded by team
member
92
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Measurement System Analysis
Quantitative evaluation of the tools and
process used in data collection
Conducted to ensure the information
collected is a true representation of the
process.
93
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Types of Measurement System Analysis
Operational Definitions
Walking the Process
Gage R&R
Variable Data
Attribute Data
94
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Gage R & R
Repeatability is the variation
in measurements obtained with
one measuring instrument when
used several times by a measurer
while measuring the identical
characteristic on the same part.
95
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Measurement System Analysis
96
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Gage R&R - Repeatability
The term repeatability refers to:
The inherent variability of the measuring system
Variation that occurs when repeated measurements are
made of the same item under absolutely identical
conditions
Same operator
Same setup
Same units
Same environmental conditions
97
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Gage R&R - Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the variation in the average of the
measurements made by different measurers using
the same measuring instrument when measuring the
identical characteristics on the same item.
98
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Gage R&R - Reproducibility
The term reproducibility refers to:
The variation that results when different conditions are
used to make the measurements
Different operators
Different setups
Different units
Different environmental conditions
Different measurement systems
99
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Sources of Variation

Observed Process Variation

Actual
Process
Variation
Measurement
Variation
Short-term
Process
Variation
Long-term
Process
Variation
Variation
within a
Sample
Variation
due to
Operators
Variation
due to
Gage
Repeatability Accuracy
Reproducibility
Stability Linearity
100
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Gage R&R - Example
W
A
B
C
Operator 1
Operator 2
Operator
3
Values across rows
Contribute to
Repeatability
Values across columns
Contribute to Reproducibility
Task : Establish Gage R&R for
Measurement of Width of Box

# Measurers :3 # of Samples :3 Gage : Vernier
Calipers
101
Gage R & R
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Part-to-Part Reprod Repeat Gage R&R
100
50
0
% Contribution
%Study Var
S
a
m
p
l
e

R
a
n
g
e
0.010
0.005
0.000
_
R=0.00467
UCL=0.00987
LCL=0
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
10.5700
10.5675
10.5650
_
_
X=10.566844
UCL=10.569536
LCL=10.564153
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
Box Id
C B A
10.5700
10.5675
10.5650
Operator Id
Operator 3 Operator 2 Operator 1
10.5700
10.5675
10.5650
Box Id
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
C B A
10.568
10.567
10.566
Operator Id
Operator 1
Operator 2
Operator 3
Gage name: V ernier Calipers
Date of study : 01-02-2005
Components of Variation
R Chart by Operator Id
Xbar Chart by Operator Id
Width (in mm) by Box Id
Width (in mm) by Operator Id
Operator Id * Box Id Interaction
Gage R&R (ANOVA) for Width (in mm)
102
Process Sigma Common metric
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Which Process Is Performing Best?
Response to a P1 ticket
Billing
Vendor Payment
Customer Survey
11 +/- 5 minutes (Average speed of response)
98 +/-1% (Accuracy)
33 +/- 2 Days (Average delay)
82% (Rated 4 or 5 on Responsiveness)
Process Y Performance
103
Process Sigma Common metric
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase

Z = # standard deviation units
between the specification limit and
the mean
Z
USL
=
Z
LSL
=
Process Capability: A measure in Standard Deviation Units (Z) of how far the process mean
is from the performance standard.
How far (in standard deviation units) is the mean from the specification (Lines A+B)
s
+1 +2 +3 -1 -2 -3
Lower
Spec
Limit
6-sigma : the closest
specification is at least 6
standard deviation units (Zs)
away from the mean
Smaller the variation in the process,
higher the sigma value
+1 +2 +3 -1 -2 -3
X - LSL
s
USL - X
s
s
+4 +5 +6 -4 -5 -6
X
X
Upper
Spec
Limit
Lower
Spec
Limit
Upper
Spec
Limit
104
Capability Analysis
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Index Measure Phase
Check for Normality
Data is considered Normal
only when
P-Value > 0.05
Z Bench is automatically calculated
105
Analyze Phase - Flow
Define Measure Improve Analyse Control
Quantify the
opportunity
Identify
possible
causes
Data stratification
Process map
analysis
Cause and effect
diagrams
Determine the
financial benefits
Narrow to
root causes
Hypothesis testing
Regression
analysis
106
Run Chart
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Example of a Run Chart
Median
A graphical tool to monitor Project Y
Use to develop a preliminary understanding of the variation in a process
Variation Over a Period of Time
107
Run Chart
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
1. Collect 20 or more data values over time

2. Plot the data in time order

3. Pencil in the median line

4. Check for signals of special cause

Slow to detect special causes
Wont detect:
Shifts of short duration
Increases In variation
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
How to make a Run Chart ?
Can be used for almost any data
collected over time
Easy to plot
No calculations are necessary
Easy to interpret
Provide a baseline for key measures
108
Run Chart Special cause patterns
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
Cycle 14 or more consecutive
points up and down
Find out what was
different about the process
around
the time the cycle
occurred
Shifts 8 or more points in a row on
the same side of the median
indicate a shift in a key
element of the process.
Find out what was
different about the
process around the
time that the shift
occurred.
Customer
complaints
increase due to
change in policy
Trends 7 or more points in a row
continuously increasing or
continuously decreasing
indicate a trend.
Find out what was
different about the
process around the
time that the trend
started.
Market growth or
decline
A sequence of 7 or
more points having the
same value.
Find out if
measurement device
is stuck.

Poor resolution.
Cycle time
measured to
nearest day
Same
Value
Pattern Plot Conclude Action Example
Fluctuations in
staffing due to
holidays
109
5 Why Analysis
M
E
A
S
U
R
E
1. Why do we pay invoices some invoices late ?
Because we receive them late from vendors
2. Why do we receive them late ?
Because vendors send invoices in batches
3. Why do vendors send invoices in batches ?
Because individual invoices are not available during shipment
4. Why individual invoices are not available ?
Because invoices are not printed for each transaction
5. Why invoices are not printed for each transaction ?
Because Shipping Dept does not have a printer and no resource to collect individual invoices if printed
individually. Hence printed in bunches.

Use after verifying an X
with data
Ask why five times to
identify deeper causes
Use process data to
answer each WHY
question
110
Pareto Analysis
A
N
A
L
Y
Z
E
Index Analyze Phase
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t
s
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Servers
Count 380324279263219210210161705
Percent
2587
18 14 10 10 9 8 8 4 3 2
1915
2 2 2 1 1 1 5
Cum % 18 32
1473
42 52 61 69 77 81 83 86 88 89
1393
91 92 94 95100
1282 1128 1078567
O
t
h
e
r
O
N
N
N
-
U
S
P
X
1
-
M
S
P
P
R
O
D
1
O
N
N
N
-
S
R
V
U
P
D
A
T
E
O
N
N
N
-
S
M
P
R
O
D
Q
A
O
N
N
N
-
E
V
A
L
P
O
W
E
R
E
D
G
E
O
N
N
N
-
U
S
P
X
1
-
S
M
P
R
O
D
2
O
N
N
N
-
S
O
D
I
U
M
O
N
N
N
-
U
S
P
X
1
-
S
M
P
R
O
D
4
O
N
N
N
-
A
Z
0
1
-
D
D
C
M
O
N
N
N
-
A
Z
0
1
-
L
E
G
A
L
-
0
1
O
N
N
N
-
N
B
M
E
D
I
A
O
N
N
N
-
A
Z
0
1
-
P
M
I
S
O
N
N
N
-
U
S
P
X
1
-
S
C
M
S
-
I
B
P
O
N
N
N
-
A
Z
0
1
-
O
N
P
D
C
O
N
N
N
-
U
S
P
X
1
-
D
A
T
S
E
R
V
E
R
O
N
N
N
-
S
C
M
S
-
D
E
V
O
N
N
N
-
A
Z
0
1
-
N
W
M
I
G
R
A
T
E
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
Incidents per Server
23% of Servers
Contributing to
81% of Incident
Volume
( There are totally
35 servers in the
Environment )
111
Pareto Analysis
A
N
A
L
Y
Z
E
Index Analyze Phase
Cascading Paretos And The Five Whys / Fish Bone Diagram
A
r
e
a

C
o
d
e

L
o
c
a
l

#

P
h
o
n
e

#

A
d
d
r
e
s
s

M
a
r
i
t
a
l

S
t
a
t
u
s

I
n
c
o
m
e

Pareto A
Pareto B
Pareto C
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

P
e
r
s
o
n
a
l


I
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

B
a
n
k
i
n
g

I
n
f
o

C
r
e
d
i
t

F
i
x

112
Sources of variation
Machines

Methods

Materials

Measurements

Mother Nature

People
P
R
O
C
E
S
S
113
Fishbone Analysis
A
N
A
L
Y
Z
E
Index Analyze Phase
114
Improve Phase - Flow
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Perform cost-benefit
analysis for the
preferred solution
Generating Solutions
Generate solutions including
Benchmarking and select
best approach based on
screening criteria
A
B
C
D
4
1
3
2
Assessing Risks
Use FMEA to identify
risks associated with the
solution and take
preventive actions
Piloting
Test
Full scale
Original
Pilot the solution on
a small scale and
evaluate the results
2 4 8 6 10
G
1 3 5 7 9
A
B
C
D
F
E
J
I H
G
Implementation
Planning
Develop a full plan
for implementation and
change management
Selecting the Solution
Recommend a solution
involving key
stakeholders.
115
Improve Phase - Flow
Define Measure Improve Analyse Control
Refine
solutions
Identify & test
solutions
Justify solution
Generate ideas
Synthesize
solutions
Screen
solutions
Potential
problem analysis
Error proofing
Robust design
FMEA
Pilot planning
Verification of
results
Pilot solution
Cost benefit
analysis
Senior
management
approval
116
Index Improve Phase
Identify & Test Solutions
Possible Paths For Solution Development
When the root causes are clearly defined and the possible solutions are more obvious,
Design Of Experiments may be the best path to a good solution. In situations where the
root cause is a combination of factors or process issues, and the solution is not obvious,
a creative thinking approach may be a more productive path to a good solution.
Generate New Solution Ideas
Test
Refine
Structured DOE Approach
Investigate Specific Xs
Test
Refine
OR
X
1
X
2
X
3
X
4
X
1
X
2
Root Causes
Out-of-the-Box Thinking
Solution
Is Not
Obvious
Solution
Is Obvious
117
Improvement criteria
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Must are absolute requirements that can be used to
screen out unacceptable alternatives.

Desirables/Want are comparison criteria that can be
used as features and characteristics for comparison of one
solution to another
118
Involve team in developing solutions
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
119
Brainstorming
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Purpose: Generate creative ideas

Brainstorming is a technique to
generate large number of ideas in a
relatively short periods of time



Brainstorming leverages the
knowledge, ideas, and
experience of several people to
generate a comprehensive set
of ideas.
120
Tools to aid selection of solutions
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Payoff Matrix : Evaluate the improvements that
appear to offer the highest benefit compared to the
amount of effort required to implement them
High
Low
Low
High
Effort
B
e
n
e
f
i
t

Consensus Decision making : A search for the best
decision through the exploration of the best of
everyones thinking. Everyone understands the
decision and can explain why it is best. Everyone has
had an opportunity to be heard

Criteria Based Matrix : Identify the most
important criteria and the rest relative to this.
Multiple solutions are evaluated against the criteria.
121
Criteria based matrix - Example
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Want Criteria Rank Ford Ikon Fiat Seina
Score Wt
Score
Score Wt Score
Safety 10 10 100 6 60
Stereo 4 7 28 10 40
After sales
service
7 10 70 5 35
Mileage 8 8 64 10 80
Interiors 5 10 50 8 40
Order to
Delivery time
9 8 72 10 90
Total
384
345
Example:
You want to buy a Car. You
scan through auto mart and
shortlist two cars based on the
Cost factor (Must Criteria)
From the short listed list you
now need to decide which car
to buy.
Screen generated solutions for Must Criteria and list down all Want criteria
Identify the most important Want and give it a rating of 10. Rank the remaining
Wants relative to the Most important Want
Assign score of 10 to the solution that best fit each Want. Rank the other solutions
relative to that solution.
Calculate the weighted score and take decision on the solution to be selected
122
Solutions review
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Involve people.
Use creativity techniques to generate alternatives.
Generate and weight criteria.
Evaluate each alternative against the criteria.
Be creative in finding ways to get additional information about a
potential solution.
If no clear choice emerges, use consensus decision making.

123
Develop Should Be Process map
I
M
P
R
O
V
E

For the selected solution, develop the Should Be process map
To describe new process
To help refine solution
To serve as the base document for process monitoring
What You Think It Is... What It Really Is.. What It Should Be... What It Could Be...
124
Cost Benefit Analysis
Index Improve Phase
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Benefits
Cost Of
Implementation
Benefits
Quality improvements
Cost reductions/Avoidance
Documentable cost avoidance
Revenue generation
FTE reduction
Cost Of Implementation
Equipment and materials
Training
Improvement team labor
Travel and living expenses
125
FMEA
Index Improve Phase
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
System Potential FMEA Number
Subsystem Failure Mode and Effects Analysis Prepared By
Component (Design FMEA) FMEA Date
Design Lead Key Date Revision Date
Core Team Page of
Action Results
Item / Function
Potential
Failure Mode(s)
Potential
Effect(s)
of Failure
S
e
v
Potential
Cause(s)/
Mechanism(s)
of Failure
P
r
o
b
Current Design
Controls
D
e
t
R
P
N
Recommended
Action(s)
Responsibility
& Target
Completion
Date
Actions Taken
N
e
w

S
e
v
N
e
w

O
c
c
N
e
w

D
e
t
N
e
w

R
P
N
Identify each failure mode and
Potential Consequence(s) of that
Failure
Severity - On a scale of 1-10,
rate the Severity of each
failure ( 10=most severe).
See Severity list
Likelihood - Write down the
Potential Cause(s), and on a
scale of 1-10, rate the Likelihood
of each failure (10=most likely).
See the Probability list
Dectability - Examine the current
design, then on a scale of 1-10
rate the dectability of each
failure. ( 10=least detectable).
See Detectability list
Risk Priority Number : The combined
Weighting of Severity,Likelihood and
Detectability.
RPN = Sev*Occ*Det
Response Plans and Tracking
126
Solution Implementation (To Be Process Map)
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Index Improve Phase
127
Control Phase - Flow
Define Measure Improve Analyse Control
Implementation
plan
Control Plan Close project
Process
documentation
Monitoring plan
Response plan
Implementation plan
Implement solution
Monitor the process
Control charts and
new process
baselines
Transition to the
process owner
Translate learnings
Project closure

128
Process Control
Methods used to either make
the occurrence of a
nonconformity impossible or to
ensure that it does not pass
undetected
Look-up tables for database entry
Validation
Bar coding
Error messages/Check list
Error proofing
Audits helps to identify gaps in
implementation
Check the implementation of the new
process on a defined frequency
Check if the new process is documented
Check if all users are trained on the new
process
Periodic Audits
Training ensures that all
process users perform key
tasks in the same way
Update training manual
Train all users the new process
Update training records
Periodically retrain
Training

Making sure documentation is
up to date and used
encourages ongoing use of
standardized methods
Detailed SOPS
Work Instructions with screen shorts
Improved Flow Chart
All changes to be reflected in the
documented QMS -ISO
Documentation
129
Process Control
Control Plan
Define key output and process measures for ongoing
monitoring of the improved process
Determine the performance standards targets and
specification limits - for the measures
Define the methods for gathering, recording and reporting
data collected on the measures( 4 step data collection
plan)
Can include a response plan

Define parameter
for performance of
the new process
Control chart
Graphical representation of process performance over
time (variation)
Identify drift from
the normal behavior
so that corrective
action can be taken
Response Plan
Document actions to be taken when an out of control
event occurs
Define time frame for the action to be taken.
Identify the ownership for action items



130
Control Charts
C
O
N
T
R
O
L
131
Control Charts
C
O
N
T
R
O
L
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
11.5
12.5
0 10 20 30
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
11.5
12.5
0 10 20 30
In Control
Not In Control
132
Control Charts
C
O
N
T
R
O
L
Determine
Data Type
Attribute or
Variable
Data?
Sample
Size=1?
Sample
Size<10?
IX-MR
Chart
Xbar-R
Chart
Y
Y
N
Variable
(data
continuous)
Defects
or Defective
Units?
Xbar-S
Chart
N
Attribute
(data discrete) Inspection
unit same?
c-chart
u-chart
Defects
Y or N
Y
Sample
SizeConstant?
np-chart
p-chart
Defectives
Y or N
Y
133
Control Plan
I
M
P
R
O
V
E
Special Causes of Variation:
More Number of IRs closed during the month
Less Effort spent on requests during the month
Defects due to new defect types/causes
Change in resources within the team especially induction of new resources to the team
Change in the nature of requests received (New kind of requests Requests of similar nature
were not previously executed by the team).

When it is appropriate to react:
One point falls outside the 3 Sigma control limits.
Seven successive points on the same side of the centerline.
Seven successive points that increase or decrease.
Two out of three successive points are both on the same side of the centerline and outside the
2 Sigma zone.
Four out of five successive points are both on the same side of the centerline and outside the 1
Sigma zone.
Fourteen Points in a row Alternating ups and downs
Other non-random patterns such as trends of points within the control limits.
Other non-random patterns such, cycles of points within the control limits.


Index Control Phase
134
Lean/Six Sigma Training & Certification
Training Audience Duration Mode Criteria
Yellow Belt Open 4 hours Classroom -
Project Champion Project Sponsors 3 days Classroom -
Green Belt Associates &
Above
Open to All for
CBE, Mumbai
SQAG & corp.
functions.
5 days

40 hours
Classroom

eLearning
Project
Viva Voce
Exam
Black Belt Senior Associates
& above
4 weeks/5 days each Classroom Hi-Impact Project
GB Mentoring
Viva Voce
BMG Exam
Lean Open 4 hours Classroom -
Rigorous Training & Mentoring Support



135
Thank You
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