Sie sind auf Seite 1von 42

8.

1 Introduction to DNA
Fingerprinting and Forensics
Forensic science intersection of law
and science
Historic examples
1800s photography
Early 1900s fingerprints
DNA Fingerprinting 1985
Unique signature found in each persons
genetic makeup

Fingerprinting

Fingerprints have been used as a means of
identification dating back well over two thousand
years. Over the past century, the fingerprinting
process has become more sophisticated, and it
has been put to many more uses.
The first documented fingerprints were taken in
India in 1858 by Sir William J. Hershel.
Soon thereafter advances were made on several
fronts, and Sir Edward Henry devised a
classification system around the turn of the 20th
century that is still in practice today


Types of Fingerprints
The three distinct types of fingerprints that
can be recovered from a crime scene are
patent, plastic, and latent prints.
The knowledge of the types of fingerprints
hastens the investigator's quest to identify
the source of the fingerprints
PATENT PRINTS - are visible prints that
occur when a foreign substance on the skin
of a finger comes in contact with the smooth
surface of another object.
These prints leave a distinct ridge impression
that is visible with the naked eye without
technological enhancement of any kind.
The tried and true "blood on his hands"
evidence is an example of patent prints
recovered from a crime scene or scene of
interest to investigators.
These foreign substances contain dust
particles which adhere to the ridges of the
fingers and are easily identifiable when left on
an object.


PLASTIC PRINTS - are visible, impressed prints
that occur when a finger touches a soft, malleable
surface resulting in an indentation.
Some surfaces that may contain this type
of fingerprint are those that are freshly
painted or coated, or those that contain
wax, gum, blood or any other substance
that will soften when hand held and then
retain the finger ridge impressions.
These prints require no enhancement in
order to be viewed, because they are
impressed onto an object and are easily
observable.


LATENT PRINTS - are fingerprint impressions secreted in
a surface or an object and are usually invisible to the naked
eye.
These prints are the result of perspiration which is derived
from sweat pores found in the ridges of fingers.

When fingers touch other body parts, moisture, oil and
grease adhere to the ridges so that when the fingers touch
an object, such as a lamp, a film of these substances may
be transferred to that object.

The impression left on the object leaves a distinct outline
of the ridges of that finger.

These fingerprints must be enhanced upon collection and,
because they serve as a means of identifying the source
of the print, they have proven to be extremely valuable
over the years in the identification of its source.


Fingerprint Classification
Fingerprint classification was developed by Sir
Francis Galton in 1888 so that fingerprints could
be retrieved in a reasonable amount of time.
Sir Edward Henry expanded on Galton's
system, and his manual filing system paved the
way for the computerized classification systems
that exist today.


The patterns of the ridges of our fingers are distinct in every
individual.
The four basic pattern classifications established by Sir
Edward Richard Henry in 1896 are
the arch, the loop, the whorls, and the composites
(loops).
Even to this day, Sir Henry's work on fingerprint patterns
has held up under critical review.


Fingerprint Criticism
The human element eliminates the infallibility of the fingerprint methodology as a
personal identification mechanism. Mistakes can be made by the administrator in the
process of printing, or by the expert who is responsible for making the final
determination upon review of the possible matches.
There is no data available that could quantify the percentage of errors made in
personal identification through the utilization of fingerprints.
There are also errors that can occur in the process of taking inked fingerprints. The
fingerprints can be rendered illegible in the inking process if:
The finger has not been rolled fully from side to side.
The entire finger from its joint to its top has not been inked.
The finger is not held securely in place. If the technician holds the fingers too loosely (or
too securely), there could be a smudging or blurring of the prints, thus rendering a false
pattern of prints.
The usage of an inappropriate texture of ink can result in running of the ink and pattern
distortion. Black printer's ink of a heavy texture is the advisable texture to use.
The usage of too much ink can distort the patterns.
The usage of too little ink will render the ridge patterns indistinguishable.
Temporary disabilities to the fingerprint subject, such as cuts and blisters, can distort the
pattern of the ridges.
Excessive perspiration on the fingers of the subject may inhibit the ink from adhering to the
fingers which would result in a blurred and inaccurate outcome.
Errors made on the information card that accompanies the fingerprints, such as
name, date of birth, sex and age can lead to complications as to the authenticity of
the prints.
Defense
Fingerprints are the ultimate source in the establishment of both the verification
and recognition of a person's identity. This statement is based on three factors:
fingerprints are distinct and unique to each individual, and no two people have
identical prints; fingerprints are unchangeable over the course of a lifetime of a
person; and fingerprints can be extracted from any surface they come into contact
with.
Inexpensive
Reliable
Fast Results
Multi-faceted usage, including criminal, commercial, financial and civilian
identifications
Deterrent to crime and fraud
Effective in streamlining business processes
Preservation of personnel and financial resources in both the private and public
sectors. Fingerprinting is the most basic and assured of security mechanisms.
World wide computerized system is already in effect and extremely valuable
during criminal investigations, since the database has been established.
Identifies who a person is, as opposed to what a person has, such as a password,
pin # or other identification of that nature. It establishes identification through the
identification of unchangeable personal characteristics. A person may change hair
color, but cannot alter fingerprints. One cannot guess, fake or forget fingerprints as
can occur in non-biometric identification methodologies. The individual who is
fingerprinted must be physically present in order to be processed.
8.2 What Is a DNA Fingerprint?
Every individual carries a unique set of
genes
Chemical structure of DNA is same, but the
order of the base pairs differs
Every cell contains a complete set of DNA
that identifies the organism as a whole
Only one tenth of 1% of DNA differs from
person to person


8.2 What Is a DNA Fingerprint?
Two Main Types of Forensic DNA Testing
RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism)
Requires larger amounts of DNA
DNA cannot be degradedRFLP
was one of the first applications of DNA analysis to forensic
investigation. With the development of newer, more efficient
DNA-analysis techniques, RFLP is not used as much as it once
was because it requires relatively large amounts of DNA. In
addition, samples degraded by environmental factors, such as
dirt or mold, do not work well with RFLP.
Log onto: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sheppard/analyze.html
PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
Less DNA and DNA can be partially degraded
Extremely sensitive to contaminating DNA
Lets try a virtual DNA fingerprint lab!




Want to see the evidence from the OJ case?
http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Simpson/simpson.htm
Click on incriminating evidence
Then DNA evidence (on the top in the center)
8.2 What Is a DNA Fingerprint?
DNA profiling depends on a small
portion of the genome
Exons code proteins (proteins that are expressed)
These are the 99.9% that makes us similar
Introns do not code for proteins (these are what make
us different)
The introns contain repeated sequences of between
1 and 100 base pairs
Called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)
Some VNTRs are inherited from mother and
some from father

8.2 What Is a DNA Fingerprint?
DNA fingerprinting is restricted to the
detection of microsatellites
1 to 6 nucleotide repeats dispersed throughout
the chromosomes
Probes used to identify the microsatellite
surround the specific microsatellite being
analyzed
Also called short tandem repeats (STR)
FBI has chosen 13 unique STRs for testing
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)
8.3 Preparing a DNA Fingerprint
Specimen Collection
Search for sources of DNA
Collection requires scrupulous attention to
detail
Wear disposable gloves; change them frequently
Use disposable instruments
Avoid talking, sneezing, and coughing
Avoid touching any item that might contain DNA
(face, nose, or mouth)
Air-dry evidence before packaging; mold can
contaminate a sample
8.3 Preparing a DNA Fingerprint
Enemies of Evidence
Sunlight and high temperature
Bacteria
Moisture
DNA fingerprinting is a comparative process
Samples from crime scene must be compared to suspect
DNA
Best sample from suspect DNA is fresh, whole blood
Extraction of DNA
DNA can be purified
Chemically (using detergents)
Mechanically (pressure to force DNA out of cell)


8.3 Preparing a DNA Fingerprint
RFLP Analysis: Restriction Fragment
Length Polymorphism
Treat DNA with restriction enzyme
Restriction enzyme cuts DNA at restriction sites
Use several restriction enzymes in sequence or
combined
Use agarose gel electrophoresis to separate
the pieces
Gel is chemically treated or heated to denature
the DNA
Allows the binding of a single-stranded probe
Try a virtual RFLP gel electrophoresis:
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/gel/
8.3 Preparing a DNA Fingerprint
Southern Blot Technique
Transfer DNA fragments from gel to nitrocellulose or
nylon membrane
Membrane incubated with a probe
Short strand of complementary DNA with a radioactive or
fluorescent tag
Targeted area on the DNA fragment is called a locus
Expose X-ray (photo) film to membrane to obtain
permanent record of results

8.3 Preparing a DNA Fingerprint
PCR used to amplify DNA found at crime
scene into an amount that can be analyzed
DNA produced is identical to the original
sample
Use amplified DNA in a Dot Blot Analysis
DNA amplified by PCR is blotted onto specially
prepared blot strips
Each dot on the strip is a different DNA probe from human
DNA
Try a virtual one for yourself!

http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/animations.htm
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/pcr/
STR Analysis
STR: Small Tandem Repeats
Use primers to amplify STRs in DNA using
PCR
FBI uses 13 STR regions
Odds that two individuals will have the
same 13-loci DNA profile are more than
one in a billion

Check out the 13 loci profiles that get loaded into CODIS
(the FBIs DNA Database!)
http://www.cstl.nist.gov/strbase/fbicore.htm
8.4 Putting DNA to Use
DNA fingerprinting is a comparative
process
Looking for alignment of bands or dots in the
fingerprint
All tests are based on exclusion
Testing continues only until a difference is found
If no difference is found after a statistically
acceptable amount of testing, the probability of a
match is high
Narborough Village Murders
1983 first reported use of genetic fingerprinting in
a criminal case
Sexual assault and murder of girl in United
Kingdom
The prime suspects DNA did not match that found
at crime scene
Police collected 5500 samples from the areas
population of likely suspects
None of the DNA profiles matched the crime scene
Friend of suspect had given a sample in the name
of the suspect

Forest Hills Rapist
DNA first used in United States 1987
Victor Lopez tried for the sexual assault of
three women
Reported assailant was a black man; Lopez was not
a black man
DNA was a match to crime scene

Terrorism and Natural Disasters
They have forced development of new
technologies
World Trade Center September 11, 2001
Used DNA techniques to identify the remains of
victims
Tremendous amount of debris, heat, and microbial
decomposition of remains
Hundreds of thousands of tissue samples from
nearly 3,000 individuals

World Trade Center

Evident that new strategies would be
necessary to quickly prepare and
organize DNA profiles and compare them
with DNA profiles from relatives
Within 24 hours, collection points had been
established around the city
Family filed missing person reports and provided
cheek cell swabs for DNA isolation; personal
items from the missing were also collected
World Trade Center
Several companies were involved in
developing new software programs to help
match DNA samples from family members to
DNA profiles of victims
Used primarily STR, mtDNA, and SNP
analysis
South Asian Tsunami
December 2004
Lost over 225,000 lives
mtDNA (mitochondrial), Y-STRs (Y-DNA)
Within 3 months, 800 victims had been identified
8.5 DNA and the Rules of Evidence
DNA fingerprinting had to meet legal
standards regarding the admissibility of
evidence
5 different standards used
Relevancy test
The Frye standard
The Coppolino standard
The Marx standard
The Daubert standard
Simpson/Goldman Murders
Collected 45 samples for DNA analysis, including known
blood samples from the two victims and the suspect;
blood drops found at the crime scene, in the suspects
home, and in his car
Pre-trial hearings announced that the DNA collected at
the crime scene matched that of O.J. Simpson
Defense lawyers attacked the procedures used in
collecting, labeling, and testing the evidence
Possibility that evidence was tainted became obvious
DNA evidence not effective
Want to see more about the case?
http://investigation.discovery.com/videos/crimes-of-the-century-oj-simpson-videos/
DNA in the News
Tsunami in Japan
Tornados in Alabama and across the
Midwest
Osama Bin Ladden Identification
Human Error and Sources of
Contamination

Chain of custody of samples is compromised
Collection of evidence must be systematically
recorded and access to evidence must be controlled
Follow defined standards of laboratory practice
and procedures to prevent DNA damage
during the analysis
DNA and Juries
Must make sense to the jury
Statistics can be confusing

8.6 Familial Relationships and DNA Profiles
Paternity Testing
Analyze samples from child and adults involved
Mitochondrial DNA
Used to examine samples that cannot be analyzed by
PCR or RFLP
Older samples that lack nucleated cellular material
(hair, bones, and teeth)
Inherited from the mother only
Changes only about 1% every million years due to
random mutation
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2194/is_8_71/ai_90819640/pg_5/
Check out some crimes that have been solved using mtDNA!

Y-Chromosome Analysis
Passed directly from father to son
Useful for tracing relationships among males or
analyzing biological evidence involving multiple
male contributors
Wanna try some DNA Heritage investigating?
(it will only $159 )
http://www.dnaheritage.com/mtdna.asp

8.7 Nonhuman DNA Analysis
Ginseng
$3 million market in U.S. alone
Two major herbal products are referred to as
ginseng
One native to North America, the other native to
Asia
Asian ginseng boosts energy; American ginseng
calms nerves
American variety is rarer and more valuable
Prove a hunter killed a bear illegally in PA
A law makes it illegal to kill a bear in a den
Witness reported seeing a hunter discharge gun
into den
Bears premolars were removed at registration
station to confirm sex and age of bear
Collected blood samples from the den and
compared with DNA from bear; were a match
DNA Tagging to Fight Fraud
Use DNA as an authentication label hidden in a
wide variety of products
Footballs in 2003 Super Bowl
2000 Sydney Summer Olympics
Ancestry of Cabernet Sauvignon
Grapes
Hybrid grapes are considered inferior and
are legally excluded from bearing the
prestigious dinstinction appellation dorigine
contrle in France
DNA evidence determined that the
ancestors of cabernet sauvignon grapes are
cabernet franc and sauvignon blanc

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen