Radiographic Interpretation

PART 2
Duties of a Radiographic Interpreter
Mask of any unwanted light from viewer
Ensure the background light is subdued
Check the radiograph for correct identification
Assess the radiographs density
Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
Check the radiograph for any artifacts
Assess the radiograph for any defects present
State the action to be taken, acceptable,
rejectable or repair
Radiographic Films
Radiographic Film


Base
Base must be :-
Transparent - To allow white light to go through
Chemically inert
Must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction
High tensile strength
Flexibility
cellulose triacetate / polyester
Subbing layer - the adhesive between the emulsion
and base
- The material for this is gelatine +
a base solvent
Subbing
Subbing
Base
Radiographic Film
Base
Supercoat
Supercoat
Subbing
Subbing
Radiographic Film
The Emulsion
Consist of millions of silver halide crystal (silver bromide)
The size usually 0.1 & 1.0 m suspended in gelatin binding
medium
Is produced by mixing solution of silver nitrate & salt, such
as potassium bromide
The rate & temperature of mixing governs its grain size
Size & distribution of the crystal effect the quality /
appearance of final radiograph (large grain more sensitive
to radiation)
What are the advantages of
Double Coated Film?
Improve contrast
Reduce the exposure time
Radiographic Film
Image formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially
absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any
differing densities
The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient
amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the
latent image (hidden image)
1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into
metallic silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are the amplified by the developer,
the developer completely converts the affected crystals
into black metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation
Film Types
Grain Size Speed Quality Film factor
Coarse Fast Poor 10
Medium Medium Medium 35
Fine Slow Good 90
Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good 200
Film emulsion produced by mixing solutions of nitrate and salt such as
potassium bromide.
The rate and temperature determine the grain structures
1. Rapid mixing at low temperature - Finest grain structure
2. Slow mixing at high temperature - Large grain structure
Film Factor
Is a number relates to the speed of particular film
Is obtained from a films characteristic curve
SCRATA scale often used for film factors :
Smaller film factor - faster the film speed
Example
Film factor of 10 will be twice as fast compared to a film factor of
20.
A film factor of 20 took 4min. to expose, 2min will require for a
film factor of 10 to gives the same density
Film Type
100kV 200kV Iridium 192 Cobalt
No
Screens
Pb
Screens
PB
Screens
R
Factor
Pb
Screens
R
Factor
KODAK R (single) 20 20 20
FUJI IX25 35 30
KODAK R (double) 35 35 35 25
AGFA D2 30 40
FUJI IX29 35 45
FUJI IX50 60 55 50 5.0 50 14.0
AGFA D3 55 45 40 30
FUJI IX59 60 75
FUJI IX80 100 100 100 2.5 100 5.0
KODAK M 90 75 60 5.0 45
KODAK B 105 95 100 75
AGFA D4 70 70 65 55
KODAK T 140 115 100 75
AGFA D5 120 115 105 95
FUJI IX100 200 190 210 1.0 210 2.0
KODAK AA 200 200 150 1.1 150
AGFA D7 220 180 170 155
FUJI IX150 370 340 400 0.6 410 0.9
KODAK CX 300 250 200 255
AGFA D8 315 260 265 260
Characteristics
D2
Extremely fine-grained film with low speed and high contrast. Ideal for exposures where
the finest possible detail is required.
D3
S.
C.
Single-emulsion film with very high image quality, maximum perceptibility, high contrast
and pleasant image tint. The ideal film for sharp enlargements. The colorless back
coating prevents curling to guarantee a film that remains flat under all conditions.
D3
An ultra fine-grained film with low speed and high contrast that obtains a high detail
perceptibility. D3 meets the requirements of the nuclear industry.
D4
The ideal standard film for high quality applications. An extra fine grain film with average
speed and high contrast.
D5
The fastest film for fine detailed applications. A fine grain, moderate speed film with high
contrast. High image quality, excellent consistency and homogeneity, pleasant image tint
and a shiny surface.
D7
The ideal standard film for those applications where the emphasis is on short exposure
time. A fine grained film with excellent image quality and high contrast. D7 is a high
speed film used for high energy applications, with particularly good consistency,
homogeneity, a pleasant image tint and shiny surface.
D8
Ultra-high speed fine grain film, with moderate contrast designed for exposures with or
without metal screens. If a higher speed is required. D8 also can be used with
fluorometallic (RCF) or fluorescent screens (bivalent type).
D6R
D6R, an extra-fine grain film, can be processed both in a standard 8 min. cycle and in a
short 2 min./90 sec. cycle. Designed for exposures with or without metal screens,
flourometalic (RCF), and fluorescent screens (bivalent type).
Film Features
lx 25
Fuji's finest grain, high contrast ASTM Class 1 film having maximum sharpness and discrimination
characteristics. It is suitable for new materials, such as carbon fiber reinforced plastics, ceramic products,
and micro electric parts. lx25 is generally used in direct exposure techniques or with lead screens. lx25 is
recommended for automated processing only.
lx 50
An ultra-fine grain, high contrast ASTM E94 Class 1 film having excellent sharpness and high discrimination
characteristics. It is suitable for use with any low atomic number material where fine image detail is
imperative. Its ultra-fine grain makes it useful in high energy, low subject contrast applications where high
curie isotopes or high output X-ray machines permit its use. Wide exposure latitude has been demonstrated
in high subject contrast applications. IX 50 is generally used in direct exposure techniques or with lead
screens.
lx 80
An extremely fine grain, high contrast ASTM Class 1 film suitable for detection of minute defects. It is
applicable to the inspection of low atomic number material with low kilovoltage X-ray sources as well as
inspection of higher atomic number materials with high kilovoltage X-ray or gamma ray sources. Wide
exposure latitude has been demonstrated in high subject contrast applications. IX 80 is generally used in
direct exposure techniques or with lead screens.
lx 100
A very fine grain, high contrast ASTM Class 2 film suitable for the inspection of light metals with low activity
radiation sources and for inspection of thick, higher density specimens with high kilovoltage X-ray or
gamma ray sources. Wide exposure latitude has been demonstrated in high contrast subject applications.
Although IX 100 is generally used in direct exposure techniques or with lead screens, it is suitable for use
with fluorescent or fluorometallic screens.
lx 150
A high speed, fine grain, high contrast ASTM Class 2 film suitable for inspection of a large variety of
specimens with low-to-high kilovoltage X-ray and gamma ray sources. It is particularly useful when gamma
ray sources of high activity are unavailable or when very thick specimens are to be inspected. It is also
useful in X-ray diffraction work. IX 150 is used in direct exposure techniques or with lead screens.
Processing Film
D
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
r

S
t
o
p

b
a
t
h

Running water
Processing Systems
Manual System
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver
3-5 min at 20
O
C
Main Constituents
Developing agent metol-hydroquinone
Accelerator keeps solution alkaline
Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted
Preservative prevents oxidation by air

Processing Systems
Replenishment
Purpose to ensure that the activity of the developer and the
developing time required remains constant
Guideline 1. After 1m
2
of filmhas been developed,
about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added
Stop Bath

3% Acetic acid - neutralises the developer
Processing Systems
Fixer

Sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate
Functions:- 1. Removes all unexposed silver grains
2. Hardens the emulsion gelatin

Clearing time - The time taken for the radiography to loose
its milky appearance.

Fixing time - Twice the clearing time
Processing Systems
Processing Systems
Running water
Films should be washed in a tank with
constant running water for at least 20 minutes.
Insufficient washing the film can caused the
yellow fog appears.
SENSITOMETRY
Characteristic Curves
Increasing exposures applied to successive
areas of a film
After development the densities are measured
The density is then plotted against the log of the
exposure
Characteristic curve
Sensitometric curve
Hunter & Driffield curve
4.0


3.5


3.0


2.5


2.0


1.5


1.0


0.5

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Density
Toe portion
Average gradient
- Straight line
Shoulder
Base fog
0.3
Characteristic Curves
The relationship
between exposure time
and resultant film
density is non-linear
The gradient of the
film characteristic
curve is a measure of
film contrast
Characteristic Curves
Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve

The position of the curve axis gives information about the films
speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast
The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the
density axis will show the density range within which the film
contrast will be at its highest.
New exposure time can be determined for a change of film type
Characteristic Curves
Log Relative Exposure
Density
(Log)
Density obtained in a
photographic emulsion
does not vary linearly
with applied exposure
The steeper the slope the
greater the contrast
Characteristic Curves
Log Relative Exposure
Density
A B C D E
Film A is faster than Film B
Film B faster then C
Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve

The position of the curve axis gives information about the films speed
Film A is coarse grain &
is faster than Film B & C
Film B is fine grain and
its speed is intermediate
between Film A & C
Film C is ultra-fine grain
and is the slowest of the
three
A fast film requires a
shorter exposure time
than a slow film

Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve

The position of the curve axis gives information about the films
speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast
The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the
density axis will show the density range within which the film
contrast will be at its highest.
New exposure time can be determined for a change of film type
Changing Density
Log Relative
Exposure
Density
Density achieved 1.5
Density required 2.5
Determine interval between logs
1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5
2.5


1.5
1.3 1.8
Antilog of 0.5 = 3.16
Therefore multiply exposure by 3.16
(measured density is lower than the required density)
Original exposure 10 mA mins
New exposure 31.6mA mins
Using D7 Film a
density of 1.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
required to achieve a
density of 2.5?
1.63 - 1.31 = 0.32 Antilog 0.32 = 2.1
Original Exposure = 10 mAmin
New Exposure = 2.1 X 10 = 21 mAmin
Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve

The position of the curve axis gives information about the films
speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast
The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the
density axis will show the density range within which the film
contrast will be at its highest.
New exposure time can be determined for a change of film type
Changing Film
Obtain Logs for Films A and B at
required density

Interval between logs 1.85 1.7= 0.1

Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42
Multiply exposure by 1.42

Original exposure = 10 mA mins

New exposure = 10mAmins. X 1.42
= 14.2 mA mins
Log Relative Exposure
Density
1.7 1.85
2.5
A B
Using D7 Film a
density of 2.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
required to achieve a
density of 2.5 using
MX film?
2.07 - 1.63 = 0.44 Antilog 0.44 = 2.75
Original Exposure = 10 mAmin
New Exposure = 2.75 X 10 = 27.5 mAmin

National standards generally limit the base fog
level of unexposed radiographic film to 0.3.

If the base fog level exceeds this value film
contrast can be quite severely affected.

Fog level can be checked by processing a sample
of the unexposed film.
BASE FOG LEVEL (AFFECTS FILM CONTRAST)
Characteristic Curves
BASE FOG LEVEL (AFFECTS FILM CONTRAST)
Characteristic Curves
Effect of film fogging on the film
characteristic curve

(The dotted lines show the average
gradient between a film density of 1.5
and a film density of 2.5 for film
having a base fog level of 0.1 and 0.5
respectively.

The average gradient with a base fog
level of 0.1 is about 3.6 while that for
a base fog level of 0.5 is about 2.7.

This decrease in average gradient is
indicative of a reduction in film
contrast.)
RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION
DEFINITION
Is the sharpness of the dividing line between areas of
different density
Usually is not measured exclusively, normally assessed
subjectively
Measured by the use of Duplex type III IQI (Bs EN
462:P5)
Radiographic Definition
Definition measured by the use of a type III I.Q.I.

Alternative terms given
Duplex type
Cerl type B
EN 462 part 5

Consists of pairs of parallel platinum or tungsten wires of decreasing
thicknesess
The gap same as the thickness wire

Geometry Unsharpness ( Ug)
Also known as Penumbra is the unsharpness on the radiograph
caused by the geometry of the radiation in relation to the
object/subject
Always exists & borders all density fields
Inherent unsharpness (Ui)
Unsharpness of the radiographs caused by stray electrons
transmitted from exposed crystal which have affected adjacent
crystal
Always exists; depending on grain size, distribution & energy
used
Increases with a reduction in wavelenght
Radiographic Definition
Radiographic Definition
Geometric unsharpness Inherent unsharpness
FFD/SFD too short
OFD too large/screen film contact
Source size too large
Vibration/movement
Abrupt thick. Changes in specimen
Coarse grain film
Salt screens
Radiation quality
Development
DEFINITION
Geometry of Image Formation
Penumbra Ug)
Ug= F x ofd
fod

(Ug = 0.25mm)

ofd
Focal spot
size, F
fod
ffd
To minimise penumbra
Source size as small as possible
Source to object distance as long as possible
Object to film distance as small as possible
Penumbra (Ug)
Penumbra = S x OFD
FFD - OFD
S = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275
= 4 x 25
275 - 25

Penumbra = 0.4mm
Penumbra Calculations
Penumbra Calculations
= 4 x 25
0.25
+ 25
Min FFD = S x OFD
Penumbra
S = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275
Penumbra = 0.25
+ OFD
Min FFD = 425mm
Inherent Unsharpness
Exposed radiograph
with crack like indication
Stray electrons from
exposed crystals
Adjacent crystals
affected by stray electrons
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Inherent Unsharpness
Large film grain size increased inherent Unsharpness
Short wavelength increased inherent Unsharpness
Loose film crystal distribution increased inherent
Unsharpness
Determination of focal spot size

FOCAL SPOT SIZE
DETERMINED BY
Image Dimension minus (2 X Hole Size)
4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm

X- RAY
TUBE

LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T.
0.25 mm Dia HOLE
FILM AND CASSETTE
LARGEST IMAGE
DIMENSION e.g. 4mm
FOCAL SPOT
DEVELOPED FILM
250 mm
250 mm
Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image
Placed a lead sheet approx. 4mm thick
containing a small hole about 0.25mm
dia, exactly halfway between the focal
spot & radiographic film
Geometric Unsharpness
Geometric Unsharpness
Long Film to Focal Distance
Geometric Unsharpness
Short Film to Object Distance
Small Focus
Geometric Unsharpness
Large Focus
Geometric Unsharpness
Short Object to Film Distance
Geometric Unsharpness
Long Object to Film Distance
Geometric Unsharpness
Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two
intensifying screens
There are three main types of intensifying screens
Lead screens
Fluorescent screens
Fluorometallic screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting particulate/beta
radiation (electrons)
Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm
Front screen shortens exposure time and improves quality
by filtering out scatter
Back screen acts as a filter only
Lead Intensifying Screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting Light radiation
(Visible or UV-A)
Intensification action twice that of lead screens
No filtration action achieved
Salt used calcium tungstate
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
2 types
1. high definition (fine grain screen)
2. high speed or rapid screen
Salt Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate radiation
electrons)
High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Salt used calcium tungstate
Screen type
1. Type 1 x-rays up to 300kV
2. Type 2 x-rays 300-1000kV, Ir 192
3. Type 3 Co60
Fluorometallic Intensifying Screens
Latitude Range of thickness
Wide latitude radiographic films meet the applications for a
variety of multi-thickness subjects. (fuji IX 29 & 59)
Film Latitude
Wide latitude
Poor contrast
Good definition
Low latitude
Good contrast
Poor definition
Scatter
Radiation emitted from any other source than
that giving the primary desired rectilinear
propagation (straight line)
Scatter will lead to
- poorer contrast
- poorer definition and
- create spurious indications
It may also cause radiological protection
problems

Scatter
Internal scatter
originating within the specimen
Side scatter
walls and nearby objects in the path of the
primary beam
Back scatter
materials located behind the film
Scatter
Internal scatter originating within the
specimen
Scatter
Side scatter walls and nearby objects
in the path of the primary
beam
Scatter
Back scatter materials located
behind the film
SCATTER
Control of Scatter
Collimation
Diaphragms
Beam filtration
Masking or Blocking
Grids
Filters
Increased beam energy
COLLIMATION

provide radiation safety to the operating personnel
and general public by directing the emerging radiation
beam to the useful area of exposure.
X-ray equipment is always to some extent self-
collimated
which is turn results in radiographs with better
sensitivity.
In gamma radiography collimators consisting of
hollowed out blocks of lead weighing around 2.5 kg
are common.
collimators for gamma radiography are made from
tungsten or tantalum.
The principle of collimation is if there is less radiation
then there will be proportionally less scatter.
Diaphragms

They consist of a sheet of lead which has a
hole cut in it the same shape as the object
which is being radiographed.
shield out all unwanted radiation, the set up
for radiography must however, be extremely
accurate if the use of a diaphragm is to be
successful.
Diaphragms are therefore more likely to be
seen where a fully automated technique is in
use that allows for a very high degree of
repeatability in the set up accuracy.
Shutters and masks

consists of placing sheets of lead, bags of lead shot or barium putty or
any other radiation absorbing material around the object which is being
radiographed in order to reduce the undercutting effect of side scatter.
limit the radiation beam as it is directed toward the part, thereby
decreasing scatter radiation by narrowing and decreasing beams to a
specific location.
Shutters are usually mounted on the front of the image intensifier and
help keep radiation not passing through the part from impinging on
image intensifier screen and causing phosphor blooming.

GRIDS
limited to medical radiography.
A grid consists of a matrix of parallel metal bars which is set in
oscillation during exposure such that the grid itself does not produce a
radiographic image.
effective method of reducing the effects of side scatter, but grids are
very rarely a practical option for industrial situations.
In order to be effective the grid must be placed as close as possible to
the film.
In microfocus x-radiography it may be placed between the film and the
object.
Sensitivity

Sensitivity

Defined as the smallest indication or detail can be seen on the
radiographs.

It is a function of the contrast and the definition of the
radiographic image.

A general term of sensitivity can be determine as an overall
assessment of the quality on a radiographic image which relates
to the ability radiographic techniques to detect fine
discontinuities. .

Image quality is determined by a combination of variables:
radiographic contrast and definition.
IQI sensitivity

The image on a radiograph
which is used to determine
the quality level
Defect sensitivity

Ability to assist the
sensitivity and locate a
defect on a radiograph
(Depend on the defect
orientation)
Sensitivity
Ideally IQI should be placed on the source side
IQI sensitivity is calculated from the following formula


Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100
Object Thickness


IQI Sensitivity
Image Quality Indicators
Thickness BS 3971 DIN 54 109 BS EN 462-2 BS EN 462-1
(mm)
STEP WIRE WIRE (DIN 62) STEP/HOLE WIRE
1-6 7-12 13-18 4-10 9-15 15-21 1-7 6-12 10-16 H 1 H 5 H 9 H 13 W 1 W 6 W 10 W 13
0.050 7
0.063 7 6
0.08 6 5
0.10 5 7 7 4
0.125 6 4 6 6 6 3
0.15
0.16 5 3 5 5 5 2
0.20 4 2 7 4 4 4 1
0.25 3 1 6 7 3 3 7 3
0.30
0.32 2 5 6 2 2 6 6 2
0.35
0.40 1 4 5 1 1 5 5 1
0.50 6 3 4 4 4
0.60
0.63 5 2 3 3 3
0.75
0.80 4 1 7 7 2 2 6 7 2
0.90
1.00 3 6 6 1 1 5 6 1
1.20
1.25 2 5 5 4 5
1.50 1 4
1.60 4 3 4
1.80 3
2.00 6 2 3 2 6 3
2.50 5 1 2 1 5 2
3.00
3.20 4 1 4 1
4.00 3 3
5.00 2 2
6.30 1 1
IQI Sensitivity
A Radiograph of a 16mm thick but weld is viewed under the
correct conditions, 5 wires visible on the radiograph IQI pack
6-12 Din 62, what is the IQI sensitivity?
Sensitivity = Thickness of thinnest wire visible X 100
Total weld thickness
Sensitivity = 0.4 X 100
16
Sensitivity = 2.5 %
IQI Sensitivity
Using the same IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, How many IQI wires
must be visible to give an IQI sensitivity of 2 %, thickness of
material 16mm
Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100
Total object thickness

2 = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100
16
= 2 x16
100

= 0.32 ( 6 wire visible)
Thickness of thinnest
step/wire visible
Image Quality Indicator
Image Quality Indicators
IQIs / Penetrameters are used to measure radiographic sensitivity
and the quality of the radiographic technique used.

They are not used to measure the size of defects detected

Standards for IQIs include:

BS EN 462-1 Wire Type
BS EN 462-2 Step/wedge Type
BS EN 462-3 Classes for ferrous mat.
BS EN 462-4 IQI values & tables
BS EN 462-5 Duplex WireType

BS 3971
DIN 54 109
ASTM E747

BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs each consist of 7 wires
taken from a list of 19 wires.
Each of these groupings is available in any of
4 types of material;

FE, for Steel or stainless steel
CU, for copper, tin, zinc and their alloy
AL for Aluminium
TI. for Titanium
Four standard wire groupings are available,

designation W1, wires 1 to 7,
designation W6, wires 6 to 12,
designation W10, wires 10 to 16
designation W13, wires 13 to 19.






EN 462-1 wire type IQIs
Designation Diameter
W1 3.2
W2 2.5
W3 2.0
W4 1.6
W5 1.25
W6 1.0
W7 0.8
W8 0.63
W9 0.5
W10 0.4
W11 0.32
W12 0.25
W13 0.2
W14 0.16
W15 0.125
W16 0.1
W17 0.08
W18 0.063
W19 0.05
Easy to remember the wire diameters:
Remember the diameters of the first
three, 3.2, 2.5 and 2.0 mm divide by
halve from the remaining value.
BS EN 462-1 wire diameters
The series consists of 21 wires ranging from 0.08
mm to 8.1 mm in diameter; there are 4 overlapping
groups of 6 wires, each designated by a letter (A, B,
C or D)
IQI type WIRE DIAMETERS
A 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25
B 0.25 0.33 0.4 0.5 0.63 0.81
C 0.81 1.0 1.27 1.6 2.0 2.5
D 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.1 6.3 8.1
ASTM E 747
BS EN 462-2 Step-hole IQIs
Classification of radiographic techniques

The radiographic techniques are divided into two classes:
class A: basic techniques;
class B: improved techniques.

Class B techniques will be used when class A might be insufficiently sensitive.
Better techniques compared to class B are possible and may be defined by specification of
all appropriate test parameters.

The choice of radiographic technique shall be defined by specification.
If, for technical reasons, it is not possible to meet one of the conditions specified for class
B, such as type of radiation source or the source-to-object distance, f, it may be defined by
specification that the condition selected may be that specified for class A. The loss of
sensitivity shall be compensated by an increase of minimum density to 3,0 or by the choice
of a higher contrast film system.

Because of the better sensitivity compared to class A, the test specimen may be regarded
as tested within class B.

This does not apply if the special SFD reductions as described in 6.6 for test arrangements
6.1.4 and 6.1.5 are used.
CLASS A RADIOGRAPHY
1. Single Wall Technique Source Side IQI
Thickness
Required
wire
Wire diameter Average Sensitivity
1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25%
> 1.2 2 17 0.08 5%
> 2 3.5 16 0.1 3.64%
> 3.5 5 15 0.125 2.94%
> 5 7 14 0.16 2.67%
> 7 12 13 0.2 2.1%
> 12 18 12 0.25 1.67%
> 18 30 11 0.32 1.33%
> 30 40 10 0.4 1.14%
> 40 50 9 0.5 1.11%
> 50 60 8 0.63 1.14%
> 65 85 7 0.8 1.07%
> 85 120 6 1.0 0.98%
> 120 220 5 1.25 0.74%
> 220 380 4 1.6 0.53%
> 380 3 2.0 < 0.53%
CLASS B RADIOGRAPHY
1. Single Wall Technique Source Side IQI
Thickness Required wire Wire diameter Average Sensitivity
1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.5 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%
> 2.5 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 4 6 16 0.1 2.0%
> 6 8 15 0.125 1.79%
> 8 12 14 0.16 1.6%
> 12 20 13 0.2 1.25%
> 20 30 12 0.25 1.0%
> 30 35 11 0.32 0.98%
> 35 45 10 0.4 1.0%
> 45 65 9 0.5 0.91%
> 65 120 8 0.63 0.68%
> 120 200 7 0.8 0.5%
> 200 350 6 1.0 0.36%
> 350 5 1.25 < 0.36%
7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI
Wire type IQI
Image Quality Indicators
Image Quality Indicators
IQI wire
thickness
=
Subject thicknes
x 2
100
4T dia
ASME Image Quality Indicators
1 Hole visible = 4T
2 Holes visible = T
3 Holes visible = 2T
IQI Sensitivity
Minimum Penetrmeter Thickness 0.5mm
(2% of the weld thickness)
Minimum Diameter for 1T Hole 0.5mm
Minimum Diameter for 2T Hole 1.0mm
Minimum Diameter for 4T Hole 2.00mm
Penetrmeter Design
T dia
2T dia
1
7

12mm
38mm
T
Wire Type IQI
Step/Hole Type IQI
Image Quality Indicators
It is important that IQIs are placed
Placement of IQI
IQI must be placed on the maximum thickness of weld
Thinnest required step or wire must be placed at the extreme
edge of section under test
IQI must be placed at the source or film side and at a position
within the diagnostic film length (DFL) in accordance with the
requirements of the contract specification.
In case of access problem , IQI has to placed on the film side of
the object, letter FS should be placed beside the IQI.
IQI material chosen should have similar radiation
absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen
Exposure Control
For FFD/SFD change


E
1
D
1
2
E
2
D
2
2
=
E
1
= New exposure time
E
2
= Original exposure time
D
1
= New FFD
D
2
= Original FFD


Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change
Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 300mm
Original exposure at 250mm was 5 min
Exposure control
E
1
D
1
2

E
2
D
2

2
=
5min.

E
2
250
2
mm
300
2
mm
=
E
2
=
5Mins. X 300
2
250
2
E
2
=
E
1
=


E
2
=
D
1
2
=
D
2
2
=
5min.

?
250mm
300mm
If a good radiograph was produced using an exposure of 100 curie minutes at a
source to film distance of 850 mm what exposure will produce a good radiograph if
the source to film distance is changed to 550 mm (assuming that all other factors
remain equal)?
E
1
D
1
2

E
2
D
2

2
=
E
1
100ciMins.
550
2
mm
850
2
mm
=
E
1
=
100ciMins. X 550
2
850
2
E
1
= 42 ciMins.
E
1
=


E
2
=
D
1
2
=
D
2
2
=
?


100ciMins.
550mm
850mm
An exposure chart for iridium 192 that has been constructed for SFD = 500
mm gives an exposure of 100 Ci-min for 25 mm of steel. The specification
calls for a minimum SFD = 800 mm. If all other factors remain equal what
exposure is needed at the specified minimum SFD?
E
1
D
1
2

E
2
D
2

2
=
100ciMins.
E
2
500
2
mm
800
2
mm
=
E
2
=
100ciMins. X 800
2
500
2
E
2
= 256 ciMins.
E
1
=


E
2
=
D
1
2
=
D
2
2
=
100ciMins.
?
500mm
800mm
A radiographic technique produces a good radiograph, the settings are:
kV =175, mA = 5, FFD = 440 mm and Exposure time = 2 mins 12 secs
What exposure time will be required if the settings are changed as follows?
kV = 175,mA = 3.5, FFD = 500
E
1
D
1
2

E
2
D
2

2
=
11mAmin.
E
2
440
2
mm
500
2
mm
=
E
2
=
11mAmin. x 500
2
440
2
E
1
=


E
2
=
D
1
2
=
D
2
2
=
5mA x 2min 12sec
3.5mA x T
440mm
500mm
E
1
= mA X Time (mA.min)
= 5 x 2.2
= 11mAmin.

3.5mA x T = 14.2mAmin.
T = 14.2mAmin.
3.5mA
Exposure time = 4min 3sec
Exposure calculation
E = Intensity X Time (mA.min) X-Ray
E = Intensity X Time (ci.mins) Gamma Ray
Example for X-ray

E

= exposure (mA.min)
I = Tube current (mA)
T = Exposure time (min)

Exposure calculation


In one radiographic operation, an-x-ray machine is set at 5mA and the
radiographic film is exposed for a period of 15 minutes. What is the total
exposure received by the film?
Solution:
Given,
Tube current (mA) = 5mA
Exposure time (t) = 15 minutes
Exposure ( E) = Intensity(mA) X T(min.)
= 5 X 15
= 75 mA.min
A satisfactory radiograph is produced in 3 minutes at 8 mA.
Assuming that all other factors remain the same, what
exposure time is required if the mA is reduced to halved?
Original exposure

E = mA x t
= 8mA x 3min
= 24mAmin.

After reduced exposure

E = mA x T
24mA = 4mA x T
T = 24mAmin.
4mA
= 6min.

Radiographic Techniques
Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
- film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
Single wall single image SWSI
IQIs should be placed source side
Film
Film
Single wall single image SWSI panoramic
IQIs are placed on the film side
Source inside film outside (single
exposure)
Film

Double wall single image DWSI
IQIs are placed on the film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm
Film
Double wall single image DWSI
Radiograph
Identification
ID MR11
Unique identification
EN W10
IQI placing
A B
Pitch marks indicating
readable film length
Double wall double image DWDI elliptical
exposure
Film
IQIs are placed on the source side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less
than 100mm
Double wall double image DWDI
Shot A Radiograph
Identification
ID MR12
Unique identification
EN W10
IQI placing
1 2
Pitch marks indicating
readable film length
4 3
Double wall double image (DWDI)
perpendicular exposure
Film
IQIs are placed on the source side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of three exposures
Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld
This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
Density requirement 2.0 to 3.0
Density unacceptable
Density
1.2

Density
1.2

Density
3.0

Density
3.0

Sandwich Technique
FILM A
FILM B
FILM A: Fast film - Thicker section
FILM B: Slow film - Thinner section
LEAD
SCREENS
FILM A
FILM B
Density
2.0

Density
2.0

Density
3.0

Density
3.0

Sandwich Technique
Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptable
Interpretation conditions
Duties of a Radiographic Interpreter
Mask of any unwanted light from viewer
Ensure the background light is subdued
Check the radiograph for correct identification
Assess the radiographs density
Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
Check the radiograph for any artifacts
Assess the radiograph for any defects present
State the action to be taken, acceptable,
rejectable or repair
Viewing conditions
Darkened room
Clean viewer
Minimum adequate illumination from the viewer is
3000cd/m
2

Eyesight must be adjusted to the darkened conditions
Comfortable viewing position and environment
Avoid fatigue

Radiographic Quality
Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference in
density between adjacent areas on a radiograph
Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the
radiograph
Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Radiographic Quality
Density
Contrast
The ability to differentiate
areas of different film
density
Contrast

Radiographic contrast :- The density difference on a radiography
between two areas- usually subject and
the background (overall)

Subject contrast :- Contrast arising from variation in
opacity within an irradiated area

Film contrast :- The slope of characteristic curve of the
film at specified density. ( Type of film
being used, fine grain or large grain)
Radiographic Contrast
Insufficient Contrast
kV too high
Over exposure
compensated for by
shortened
development
Incorrect film - screen
combination
Excessive Contrast
kV too low
Incorrect developer
Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Density
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Film Energy
Subject
contrast
Processing
Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Definition
Density Film Energy
Object
contrast
Processing
Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation
Contrast
Film Contrast Subject Contrast
Film type Density Processing Scatter Wavelength Screens
Radiographic Contrast
Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Definition
Film
speed
Screens Energy Vibration Processing Geometry
Contrast
Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast
Definition
Film
speed
Screens Energy Vibration Processing
Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation
Geometry
Radiographic Contrast
Poor contrast
Poor contrast
High contrast
Radiographic Density
* Greater contrast is achieved at higher density
The DEGREE OF DARKENING of a processed film is
called FILM DENSITY.
Film Density is a logarithmic unit:

Where I
1
is the incident light intensity and I
2

is the transmitted light intensity

Thus if Film Density = 2, the incident light
intensity is 100x greater than the transmitted
intensity
Radiographic Density
Lack of Density
Under exposure
Developer temp too low
Exhausted developer
Developer too weak
Insufficient development
time
Excessive Density
Over exposure
Excessive development
Developer temp too high
Too strong a solution
Measuring Radiographic Density
Density is measured by a densitometer
A densitometer should be calibrated using a
density strip
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
What is a good radiograph?
A good radiograph satisfies
the inspection requirement