Chapter

Types and Sources of Data

Objectives

To understand
the primary and secondary types of data used in
research

the various methods of data collection, their
applicability, and limitations

how to anticipate and safeguard against the kind of
errors that infect data

Data the quantification of tangible and intangible facts
Data may be classified

- By the purpose of collection :
1. Primary Data : Data collected specifically for the
purpose of providing information on the decision
under question

2. Secondary Data: Data important for the decision
being examined, but not collected specifically for
questions related to it: socio-economic trends,
industry trends, government policies or inc-
company data including earlier research
reports


Sources of Data
cont.
- By the nature of the variables studied :
1. Data related to past or future behaviour
2. Data related to attitudes, perceptions, beliefs,
etc.

Both types of data required for understanding current
market-trends and for predicting future trends


Sources of Data

Methods of Data Collection
All research requires secondary data. Most require primary
data in addition.
Data collection methods depend on the research approach:
exploratory, descriptive or causal.
Extensive studies require more than one research approach at
different stages.
Method of collecting primary data:* Observation
* Surveys
* Experiments
* Qualitative methods



Types of Surveys
Unstructured(Open ended- qns.)


Degree of structure Semi- structure(some qns.
open - ended )

Structured (Closedended qns.)
MARKET
SURVEYS
Face- to-Face

Mail
Mode of Data Collection
Telephone

Internet



ERRORS IN DATA
SECONDARY DATA PRIMARY DATA

Outdated Data Sampling Errors Missing-Response Response Errors
Inappropriate Samples Errors
Inaccuracy Ambiguity
Guestimates Non-response Inaccuracy Ambiguity
Twisting of Data Not-at-home
Time Question
Privacy Length
Prestige Question
Conflict Form
with Question
investigator wording
Investigator
Unwillingness Trans-
lation




Limitations of Data
Types of Data

Methods of Data
Collection
Limitations
Secondary Data


Information may
relate to a
different period
and may not be
relevant any
longer.

Sample ,or data
base may be
different Rigour
in collecting data
cannot be
vouched
for.
contd.


Primary Data


Observation

Surveys







Experiments
Cannot answer the
questionwhy

Scope for
rationalized
responses

Quality of data will
vary with the skill of
the interviewer

Cannot tap into
issues that are part
of the subconscious
mind.

Can study only one
dependent variable
at a time.
Limitations of Data














Qualitative

Make assumptions
that are not always
sustainable in reality

Difficult to replicate
and therefore to
generalize from.

Results may be
vitiated by
environmental
variables and
competitive activity

Difficult to generalize

Quality of data highly
dependent on the skill
of the interviewer
Limitations of Data
TABLE 6.1: LIMITATION OF VARIOUS DATA COLLECTION METHODS
contd.
Benefits of secondary data
Resource advantage
Accessibility of data
accuracy and stability of data

Assessment of data

Evaluation of secondary data
Methodology check
Sampling consideration
Methodology of data
Analytical tools used and subsequent
reporting
Accuracy check
Topical check
Classification of data
Internal sources of data
Company records
Employee records
Sales data (cash register receipt,
salespersons call records ,sales invoices)
Financial records
External data sources
Published data








Published data sources
Government sources (census data ,
government publications)
Other data sources
Books and periodicals
Guides
Directories and indices
Standard non-gov statistical data
Computer stored data
Reference database
Syndicated data sources
On-line database
CD-ROM database
Institutional syndicated data (Nielson
,Prowess IMRB)
Qualitative methods of data collection
Direct (non-disguised)
Observation
Focus group
Depth interviews
Content analysis
Indirect (disguised- only disadvantage is privacy issue)
Projective
Association ,completion ,construction, expressive
,choice
Sociometry
new




































Qualitative vs quantitative data method
Research objective
Need to explore and describe
Study is quantified and needed suitable analysis
Research design
Exploratory or descriptive ,loosely structured and
open ended
Structured and measurable set of variables
Sampling plan
Manageable small sample vs large representative
sample


Continued......
Data collection
Data collection in depth and collected through more
interactive and unstructured approach
Data collected is formatted and structured
Data analysis
Textual and usually non statistical
Interpretation through statistical methods
Research deliverables
Intial and ultimate objective to explain findings
Findings are conclusive and demonstrate clear
indications




Chapter
Designing Questionnaires and
Interview Guides

Objectives
To Understand

the importance of a well-designed questionnaire

the funnel approach

the categories of questions and how to choose between them

mail, telephone, and Internet surveys
how to collect data from in-depth interviews
What to look out for when reproducing a questionnaire

Introduction
A questionnaire acts as the means of communication
between the respondent and the researcher. Clear and
concise definition of the goals of the study make it easier to
design the questionnaire.
contd.
The extent to which the subject matter as well as the
structure of the questionnaire interests and involves the
respondent. The funnel approach must be used for this
purpose.

The length of a questionnaire

The appropriateness of a question: the flow chart approach
and similar methods minimize errors in data collection.

The purpose of the study: this influences the format and
structure of the questionnaire.


Factors Influencing Questionnaire
Design


23
Questionnaires in Clinical
Research
Much of the data in clinical research is
gathered using questionnaires or
interviews.
The validity of the results depends on the
quality of these instruments.
Good questionnaires are difficult to construct;
bad questionnaires are difficult to analyze.
Difficult to design for several reasons:
Each question must provide a valid and
reliable measure.
The questions must clearly communicate the
research intention to the survey respondent.
The questions must be assembled into a
logical, clear instrument that flows naturally
and will keep the respondent sufficiently
interested to continue to cooperate.
24
Quality aims in survey research
Goal is to collect information that is:
Valid: measures the quantity or concept
that is supposed to be measured
Reliable: measures the quantity or
concept in a consistent or reproducible
manner
Unbiased: measures the quantity or
concept in a way that does not
systematically under- or overestimate the
true value
Discriminating: can distinguish
adequately between respondents for
whom the underlying level of the quantity
or concept is different
25
Steps to design a questionnaire:
1. Write out the primary and secondary
aims of your study.
2. Write out concepts/information to be
collected that relates to these aims.
3. Review the current literature to identify
already validated questionnaires that
measure your specific area of interest.
4. Compose a draft of your questionnaire.
5. Revise the draft.
6. Assemble the final questionnaire.

26
Step 1: Define the aims of the
study
Write out the problem and primary and
secondary aims using one sentence per
aim. Formulate a plan for the statistical
analysis of each aim.
Make sure to define the target population
in your aim(s).

27
Step 2: Define the variables to be
collected
Write a detailed list of the information to be collected and the
concepts to be measured in the study. Are you trying to
identify:
Attitudes
Needs
Behavior
Demographics
Some combination of these concepts
Translate these concepts into variables that can be
measured.
Define the role of each variable in the statistical analysis:
Predictor
Confounder
Outcome
28
Step 3: Review the literature
Review current literature to identify
related surveys and data collection
instruments that have measured concepts
similar to those related to your studys
aims.
Saves development time and allows for
comparison with other studies if used
appropriately.
Proceed with caution if using only a subset
of an existing questionnaire as this may
change the meaning of the scores.
Contact the authors of the questionnaire
to determine if a smaller version of the
instrument exists that has also been
validated.
29
Step 4: Compose a draft [1]:
Determine the mode of survey
administration: face-to-face interviews,
telephone interviews, self-completed
questionnaires, computer-assisted
approaches.
Write more questions than will be included
in the final draft.
Format the draft as if it were the final
version with appropriate white space to
get an accurate estimate as to its length
longer questionnaires reduce the response
rate.
Place the most important items in the first
half of the questionnaire to increase
response on the important measures even
in partially completed surveys.
Make sure questions flow naturally from
one to another.
30
Compose a draft [2]:
Question: How many cups of coffee or
tea do you drink in a day?
Principle: Ask for an answer in only one
dimension.
Solution: Separate the question into two

(1) How many cups of coffee do you drink
during a typical day?
(2) How many cups of tea do you drink during
a typical day?
31
Compose a draft [3]:
Question: What brand of computer do you own?
(A) IBM PC
(B) Apple
Principle: Avoid hidden assumptions. Make sure to
accommodate all possible answers.
Solution:
(1) Make each response a separate dichotomous item
Do you own an IBM PC? (Circle: Yes or No)
Do you own an Apple computer? (Circle: Yes or No)
(2) Add necessary response categories and allow for multiple
responses.
What brand of computer do you own? (Circle all that apply)
Do not own computer
IBM PC
Apple
Other

32
Compose a draft [4]:
Question: Have you had pain in the last
week?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ]
Very often
Principle: Make sure question and answer
options match.
Solution: Reword either question or
answer to match.
How often have you had pain in the last
week?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ] Very
Often

33
Compose a draft [5]:
Question: Where did you grow up?
Country
Farm
City
Principle: Avoid questions having non-
mutually exclusive answers.
Solution: Design the question with
mutually exclusive options.
Where did you grow up?
House in the country
Farm in the country
City
34
Compose a draft [6]:
Question: Are you against drug abuse?
(Circle: Yes or No)
Principle: Write questions that will
produce variability in the responses.
Solution: Eliminate the question.
35
Compose a draft [7]:
Question: Which one of the following do you think increases
a persons chance of having a heart attack the most? (Check
one.)
[ ] Smoking [ ] Being overweight [ ] Stress
Principle: Encourage the respondent to consider each
possible response to avoid the uncertainty of whether a
missing item may represent either an answer that does not
apply or an overlooked item.
Solution: Which of the following increases the chance of
having a heart attack?
Smoking: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Being overweight: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Stress: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
36
Compose a draft [8]:
Question:
(1) Do you currently have a life insurance
policy? (Circle: Yes or No)
If no, go to question 3.
(2) How much is your annual life insurance
premium?
Principle: Avoid branching as much as
possible to avoid confusing respondents.
Solution: If possible, write as one
question.
How much did you spend last year for life
insurance? (Write 0 if none).
37
Step 5: Revise
Shorten the set of questions for the study.
If a question does not address one of your
aims, discard it.
Refine the questions included and their
wording by testing them with a variety of
respondents.
Ensure the flow is natural.
Verify that terms and concepts are familiar
and easy to understand for your target
audience.
Keep recall to a minimum and focus on the
recent past.
38
Step 6: Assemble the final questionnaire
[1]:
Decide whether you will format the questionnaire yourself or
use computer-based programs for assistance:
SurveyMonkey.com
Adobe Live Cycle Designer 7.0
GCRC assistance
At the top, clearly state:
The purpose of the study
How the data will be used
Instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire
Your policy on confidentiality
Include identifying data on each page of a multi-page, paper-
based questionnaire such as a respondent ID number in case
the pages separate.

39
Assemble the final questionnaire
[2]:
Group questions concerning major subject
areas together and introduce them by
heading or short descriptive statements.
Order questions in order to stimulate
recall.
Order and format questions to ensure
unbiased and balanced results.
40
Assemble the final questionnaire
[3]:
Include white space to make answers
clear and to help increase response rate.
Space response scales widely enough so
that it is easy to circle or check the correct
answer without the mark accidentally
including the answer above or below.
Open-ended questions: the space for the
response should be big enough to allow
respondents with large handwriting to write
comfortably in the space.
Closed-ended questions: line up answers
vertically and precede them with boxes or
brackets to check, or by numbers to circle,
rather than open blanks.
Use larger font size (e.g., 14) and high
contrast (black on white).
41
Enhance response rate
When writing questions and assembling
the final questionnaire, edit with a view
towards saliency: apparent relevance,
importance, and interest of the survey to
the respondent
Consider either pre-notifying those in your
sample or sending reminders to those who
received the survey (if self-administered).
Studies have shown that making contact
with the sampled individuals increases the
response rate.
If possible, offer an incentive.
42
Non-responders
Understanding the characteristics of those
who did not respond to the survey is
important to quantify what, if any, bias
exists in the results.
To quantify the characteristics of the non-
responders to postal surveys, Moser and
Kalton suggest tracking the length of time
it takes for surveys to be returned. Those
who take the longest to return the survey
are most like the non-responders. This
result may be situation-dependent.
43
Conclusions
You need plenty of time!
Design your questionnaire from research
hypotheses that have been carefully studied
and thought out.
Discuss the research problem with colleagues
and subject matter experts is critical to
developing good questions.
Review, revise and test the questions on an
iterative basis.
Examine the questionnaire as a whole for flow
and presentation.
44
References
Designing Clinical Research, Stephen B.
Hulley, et. al.
www.statpac.com/surveys
Design and use of questionnaires: a
review of best practice applicable to
surveys of health service staff and
patients, Health Technology Assessment,
2001. Vol.5, No. 31.
Moser CA, Kalton G. Survey methods in
social investigation. 2
nd
ed. Aldershot:
Gower; 1971.
Questionnaire Design lecture, Theresa
Scott

45
Answer key [1]:
Question: How many cups of coffee or
tea do you drink in a day?
Principle: Ask for an answer in only one
dimension.
Solution: Separate the question into two

(1) How many cups of coffee do you drink
during a typical day?
(2) How many cups of tea do you drink during
a typical day?
46
Answer key [2]:
Question: What brand of computer do you own?
(A) IBM PC
(B) Apple
Principle: Avoid hidden assumptions. Make sure to
accommodate all possible answers.
Solution:
(1) Make each response a separate dichotomous item
Do you own an IBM PC? (Circle: Yes or No)
Do you own an Apple computer? (Circle: Yes or No)
(2) Add necessary response categories and allow for multiple
responses.
What brand of computer do you own? (Circle all that apply)
Do not own computer
IBM PC
Apple
Other

47
Answer key [3]:
Question: Have you had pain in the last
week?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ]
Very often
Principle: Make sure question and answer
options match.
Solution: Reword either question or
answer to match.
How often have you had pain in the last
week?
[ ] Never [ ] Seldom [ ] Often [ ] Very
Often

48
Answer key [4]:
Question: Where did you grow up?
Country
Farm
City
Principle: Avoid questions having non-
mutually exclusive answers.
Solution: Design the question with
mutually exclusive options.
Where did you grow up?
House in the country
Farm in the country
City
49
Answer key [5]:
Question: Are you against drug abuse?
(Circle: Yes or No)
Principle: Write questions that will
produce variability in the responses.
Solution: Eliminate the question.
50
Answer key [6]:
Question: Which one of the following do you think increases
a persons chance of having a heart attack the most? (Check
one.)
[ ] Smoking [ ] Being overweight [ ] Stress
Principle: Encourage the respondent to consider each
possible response to avoid the uncertainty of whether a
missing item may represent either an answer that does not
apply or an overlooked item.
Solution: Which of the following increases the chance of
having a heart attack?
Smoking: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Being overweight: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
Stress: [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Dont know
51
Answer key [7]:
Question:
(1) Do you currently have a life insurance
policy? (Circle: Yes or No)
If no, go to question 3.
(2) How much is your annual life insurance
premium?
Principle: Avoid branching as much as
possible to avoid confusing respondents.
Solution: If possible, write as one
question.
How much did you spend last year for life
insurance? (Write 0 if none).


Designing the Questionnaire


The process of questionnaire design depends on
The management dilemma
Definition of the marketing research problem

The research design: the sample, the specific interview
approach and the medium of data collection including type of
questions to be asked

The process of questionnaire design:
Designing the Questionnaire

Contd.
The process of questionnaire design:

Definition of MR Problem
Hypotheses
Objectives / Areas of Enquiry
Definition of Sample
Decision about Data-Collection Approach
Flow -Chart for Questions
Identification Questions
Research Questions
Classificatory Questions






Errors in Questionnaire Design and
the Flow Chart
Questionnaire design must consider:

Type of questions : structured vs. unstructured; closed- vs.
open-ended; scales

Order of questions: the funnel approach from general to
specific

The use of a flow-chart helpful for ensuring the order of
questions

Content of questions: governed by

a) the purpose of the question,
b) the extent to which it needs to be disguised,
c) the scope of the question
d) the wording of the question -- respondents ability and
willingness to answer it.




Errors in Questionnaire Design and
the Flow Chart

.contd.
Pre-testing the questionnaire: - administration of the
questionnaire to a
small sample prior to
its finalisation
- purpose: to check for
suitability of the type of
questions, their order,
content, and length
- sample: 15 for a simple
questionnaire; 25 for a
complex questionnaire
Questionnaires for Telephone and
Internet Surveys

Factors to be taken into consideration:
i. use structured questions as far as possible
ii. frequent use of graphics, specially for attitudinal/
perception related questions
iii. extensive use of multiple-choice or dichotomous
questions
iv. short questions
v. limited use of why questions
vi. brief questionnaire
.contd.
Questionnaires for Telephone and
Internet Surveys
Advantages of non-personal survey methods:
i. Anonymity that provides privacy
ii. The ability to answer at leisure
iii. Lower per unit cost than personal interviews
Disadvantages of non-personal survey methods:
i. Low response rates in the absence of control
ii. Biased sample because of non-response from those not
interested


Projective Techniques and Interview
Guides


Projective techniques useful when respondent unwilling or unable
to share information.
In-depth interviews require interview guidelines that do not
include formal, structured, complete questions, but only a list of
the areas of enquiry.
The interview guideline used in projective techniques and in-
depth interviews aims at obtaining information on all relevant
issues, without being restricted to a predetermined order or
structure of questions.
The interview may at times require going back and forth on one
issue, thus repeating inquiry through differently worded
questions each time.
Projective techniques particularly useful for interviewing children
: retain their interest and encourage spontaneity.

Physical quality and visual appeal secondary but impact
making characteristic of the interviewing instrument .
Good production and paper quality important.
Error free typing and design essential.
Accurate and easy-to-understand translation crucial in multi-
lingual countries like India.


Reproduction of the Questionnaire