Chapter 2

The Research
Process: Coming
to Terms
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES - STUDENTS SHOULD
BE ABLE TO:
Describe the research process from formulating
questions to seeking and finding solutions.
Describe the difference between dependent and
independent variables.
Identify other types of variables that may
interfere with the research process.
Define a hypothesis and describe how it works.
Discuss the value of the null hypothesis.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES - STUDENTS
SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe the research process from formulating
questions to seeking and finding solutions.
Describe the difference between dependent and
independent variables.
Identify other types of variables that may
interfere with the research process.
Define a hypothesis and describe how it works.
Discuss the value of the null hypothesis.

OBJECTIVES, CONTINUED - STUDENTS
SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe the differences between a null
hypothesis and a research hypothesis.
List the characteristics of a good hypothesis.
Explain the difference between a sample and
the population.
Define statistical significance and explain its
importance.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
From Problem to Solution
All About Variables
Other Important Types of Variables
Hypotheses
Samples and Populations
The Concept of Significance
FROM PROBLEM TO SOLUTION
WHAT IS RESEARCH ALL ABOUT,
ANYWAY?
Increasing our understanding of how
and why we behave the way we do!!
THE RESEARCH PROCESS:
COMING TO TERMS
From Problem to Solution
Noting an interesting question
Stating the question in such a way that it can be
answered
The Language of Research

ALL ABOUT VARIABLES
VARIABLES
Variables are a class of outcomes that can take
on more than one value
The more precisely a variable is measured, the
more useful the measurement is
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The outcomes of a research study
Depend on the experimental treatment
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Treatments or conditions under control of the
researcher
Levelsat least two different values of the
independent variable must be present
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES IN
FACTORIAL DESIGNS
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT
VARIABLES:
WHAT MAKES GOOD VARIABLES?
Independent variable is not confounded
Levels do not vary systematically with other
variables
Dependent variable is sensitive to changes
in the independent variable


OTHER IMPORTANT TYPES OF VARIABLES
OTHER IMPORTANT TYPES OF VARIABLES
Control Variable: Has a potential influence on
the dependent variable
Extraneous Variable: Has an unpredictable
impact on the dependent variable
Moderator Variable: Variables related to
independent or dependent variables, and
hiding the true relationship between
independent and dependent variables
VARIABLESA SUMMARY












Type of
Variable
Definition Other Terms
You Might See
Dependent
A variable that is measured to see whether the
treatment or manipulation of the independent
variable had an effect
Outcome variable
Results variable
Criterion variable
Independent
A variable that is manipulated to examine its impact
on a dependent variable
Treatment
Factor
Predictor variable
Control
A variable that is related to the dependent variable,
the influence of which needs to be removed
Restricting
variable
Extraneous
A variable that is related to the dependent variable
or independent variable that is not part of the
experiment
Threatening
variable
Moderator
A variable that is related to the dependent variable
or independent variable and has an impact on the
dependent variable
Interacting
variable
HYPOTHESES
HYPOTHESIS
Reflects the general problem under study
Restates the general problem in a form that is
precise enough to allow testing
NULL HYPOTHESIS
States that there is no relationship between the
independent and dependent variables under study
H
o
:
1
=
2

H
o
: Null hypothesis

1
: Theoretical average of population 1

2
: Theoretical average of population 2

PURPOSE OF NULL HYPOTHESIS
A starting point for analysis
Accepted as true absent other information
Assumes that chance caused any observed
differences
Provides a benchmark for comparison

THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A statement of inequality
A relationship exists between the independent
and dependent variables
H
1
:



H
1
: Research hypothesis
: Theoretical average of population 1
: Theoretical average of population 2
X
1
X
2
X
1
X
2
DIRECTIONAL VS. NONDIRECTIONAL
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Nondirectional Research Hypothesis
Groups are different, but direction is not specified
H
1
:




Directional Research Hypothesis
Groups are different, and direction is specified
H
1
:

>

H
1
:

<
X
1
X
1
X
2
X
1
X
2
X
2
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS
Directly tested during research process
To compare against null hypothesis
Research
Inequality between
variables
Refers to sample
Directly tested
Stated using Roman
symbols ( )
Explicit
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NULL AND
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Null
Equality between variables
Refers to population
Indirectly tested
Stated using Greek
symbols ()
Implied
X
WHAT MAKES A GOOD
HYPOTHESIS?
Is stated in declarative form
Posits a relationship between variables
Reflects theory or literature
Is brief and to the point
Is testable
SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS
SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS
The SAMPLE is a representative portion of a
POPULATION
The POPULATION is the entire group of
interest
Results from the SAMPLE should generalize to
the POPULATION
SIGNIFICANCE
SIGNIFICANCE
Observed differences (PROBABLY) result from
the treatment and not from chance
Why?
Influences other than the treatment
Significance level = risk associated with not
being 100% certain that null hypothesis is
incorrect
HAVE WE MET THE OBJECTIVES? CAN
YOU:
Describe the research process from formulating
questions to seeking and finding solutions?
Describe the difference between dependent and
independent variables?
Identify other types of variables that may
interfere with the research process?
Define a hypothesis and describe how it works?
Discuss the value of the null hypothesis?
OBJECTIVES, CONTINUED
CAN YOU:
Describe the differences between a null
hypothesis and a research hypothesis?
List the characteristics of a good hypothesis?
Explain the difference between a sample and
the population?
Define statistical significance and explain its
importance?