Science Dan Teori (Kedokteran)

SCIENCE AND THEORY
Instructor:
M. Saleh S.Ali, Ph.D
(Professor)

10/5/2014 MK. Konstruksi Teori, Semester Ganjil 2012/13
SCIENCE
Science as an activity carried on as an effort to make the diversity of
our experiences correspond to a logically uniform system of thought
(L.A.Chua, 1983).
Science is a systematic method of continuing investigation,
hypothesis testing, measurement, experimentation, and theory
building, which leads to more adequate explanantion of a
phenomena (The Ohio Academy of Science)
Science is a method of investigating nature --a way of knowing
about nature that discovers reliable knowledge about it
(Schafersman, 1994)
Science as an accumulation of systematic knowledge by a method
of approach. (Goode,1979).
Sciences are simply organized or classified common sense
(Nagel, 1979)
Science is a set of ideas, concepts, principles, or methods used to
explain a wide set of observed facts (Hutchinson, 1999).
Science is nothing more than an extension of everyday thinking
(Albert Einstein)

10/5/2014 MK. Konstruksi Teori, Semester Ganjil
2012/13
THE ESSENCE OF SCIENCE
try to understand ourselves and the world
around us.

Understanding Reality

Understanding reality :
1. Conceptual realm
2. Empirical realm
2012/13
PERSPECTIVES OF UNDERSTANDING REALITY

1. Realism
2. Social Constructionism

2012/13
REALISM
Reality exists independent of any human presence.
There is an external world comprised of objects that
follow a myriad of natural facts and laws.
It is up to us to discover these facts and laws.
Conceptual systems and theories are created so as
to precisely mirror an existing reality
2012/13
SOCIAL CONTRUCTIONISM
Reality is a construction of the human mind.
It is tied to a particular time and social context.
There is no reality and facts until these are
conceptualized and shared by some number of
people.
All we can know is our interpretation or construction
of our experiences.
The correctness of an interpretation depends upon
the purposes of those doing interpretation.
2012/13
NATURE OF REALITY
Reality appears complex.
Reality appears dynamic.
Reality appears unique.
Reality appears mostly obscure.
2012/13
SCIENCE
Science - as a method
- as a body of knowledge
(theory construction and verification)
- as a social institution (scientists,
political pressures, role, status, economic)
Science - Theory - Concepts
- Relationships
- Facts
- Logic
2012/13
PROCESS OF SCIENCE
2012/13
PHENOMENA/
REAL WORLD
DATA
THEORY/
MODEL
EXPLANATION/
PREDICTION
Observation /
experiment
reasoning
Fit / not fit
Confirm /
disconfirm
1
2
3
4
THE DIMENSIONS OF SCIENCE
SCIENCE
Theories
Proposition
s
Concepts
Empiricism/
Logic
Deductive
Reasoning
Inductive
Reasoning
PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE
Principle of regularity (Derived from
phenomena, manifested in accordance with
a uniform law of nature)
Principle of Determinism (Evolved from
something existing before).
Principle of Causality (All phenomena are
manifestations of cause)
2012/13
CRITERIA OF SCIENCE
(HERBERT FEIGL)
Intersubjectivity testability (can be done anyone)
Reliability (when put to a test, it is found to be true).
Definiteness and precision (removal of vagueness
and ambiguity).
Coherence or systematic character (free from
contradictions).
Comprehensiveness (have maximum explanatory)
2012/13
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES
1. Pure (Basic) Sciences vs Applied Sciences.
2. Law-Finding Sciences vs Fact Finding
Sciences.
3. Natural Sciences vs Social Sciences
2012/13
THE AIMS OF SCIENCE
The basic aim of science is Theory
(the truth),:
to understand phenomena
(description)
to explain phenomena
to predict
to control
2012/13
THE TRUTH
Truth in science is corresponding of fact and
logic. (verified by reason and evidence).
Classification of truth:
Empirical truth
Logical truth
Value truth
Ultimate truth
2012/13
THEORIES OF THE TRUTH
Truth is correspondence of facts
Truth is coherent or consistent
Truth is pragmatism (have practical
consequences)
Truth is consistency of syntax (consistency of
syntaxes used in a statement)
2012/13
APPROACHES TO SCIENCE
Inductive reasoning: Start with details of
experience and move to a general picture
Deductive reasoning: Start with a general
picture and move to specific direction. Uses
two or more concepts.
2012/13
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Observation
Pattern
Tentative Hypothesis
Theory

Using inductive reasoning, one
starts with a specific observation
as the basis for which we develop
a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation
of a theory

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Theory
Hypotheses
Observation
Confirmation

Using deductive reasoning, one
starts with a given theory as the
basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation

(Is our theory valid or not?)

THEORY
Theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts)
definitions and propositions that present a systematic view
of phenomena by specifying relation among variables with
the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena
(Kerlinger).
Theory is a symbolic construction (Kaplan, 1964)
Theory is a set of statements about the relationship(s)
between two or more concepts or constructs (Jaccard &
Jacoby, 2010).
Theory is a set of concepts, definitions, and generalizations
that explain something.
Construct------kumpulan dari beberapa konsep

2012/13
A theory is accepted through logical
reasoning, observation and/or experiments
The result obtained using the scientific
method have to be reproducible. If the
original claims are not verified, the causes of
such discrepancies are exhaustively
2012/13
COMPONENTS OF THEORY
A generative force or motivating reason (x).
(independent variables)
A pattern of effects (y). (dependent variables.
A set of boundary conditions (z)
2012/13
FORMS OF THEORY
(RAYNOLDS,1971)
1. The set-of-laws form of theory: generalized
and supported by empirical evidences.
2. The axiomatic form of theory: formulated
from mathematical or logic.
3. The causal proses form of theory:
cause-effect process
2012/13
ROLE OF THEORY
Theory as orientation helps to define
which kinds of facts are relevant.
Theory as conceptualization and
classification make interrelationship of
concepts or structure of concepts.
Summarizing summarize concisely what is
already know about the object of study
Predicting of facts
2012/13
THEORY LEVELS
Grand: All-inclusive conceptual structures,
abstract, including different perspective views
of person, health, and environment
Middle range: Lies between grand and
micro; synthesizes practice and research
Microrange: Linkage of concrete concepts
into a statement that can be examined
2012/13
CRITERIA CAN BE USED
TO EVALUATE THEORY
Theoretical Scope
Appropriatenes
Heuristic value
Empirical validity
Perspicuity
Parsimony
Utility
Openess
2012/13
THEORETICAL SCOPE
How general is the theory? That is, how
widely applicable is it?
In most cases, a theory that may only be
applied within a fairly narrow set of
circumstances is not considered as useful
2012/13
APPROPRIATENESS
Theories are often evaluated based upon
how well their epistemological, ontological,
and axiological assumptions relate to the
issue or question being explained.
If a theory recapitulates its assumptions (if it
is tautological), it is not an effective theory.

2012/13
HEURISTICAL VALUE
Some theories suggest the ways in which further
research may be conducted. By presenting an
explanatory model, the theory generates questions
or hypotheses that can be operationalized relatively
easily.
In practical terms, the success of a theory may rest
on how readily other researchers may continue to
do fruitful work in reaction or support.

2012/13
EMPIRICAL VALIDITY
Validity refers to the degree to which the theory
accurately represents the true state of the world.
Do the predictions implied by the theory match the
data?
If they do, your theory has empirical validity.
If they dont, your theory leads you to make false
predictions. It doesnt match reality.
2012/13
PERSPICUITY
A perspicuous theory is clear, lucid, understandable,
and unambiguous.
It is precisely stated.
Because of these qualities, the basic components
of the theory and the statements lingking the
components together will be clearly and precisely
defined, so a perspicuous theory will lead to clear
unequivocal predictions.
Furthermore, without clear and precise definitions
and predictions, it is impossible to take the
measurements needed to test the theory.
2012/13
PARSIMONY
The law of parsimony (Occam's razor) dictates that a
theory should provide the simplest possible (viable)
explanation for a phenomenon.
A parsimonius theory is one that uses few concepts and
few relationships between them.
Because it has few concepts and relationships, a
parsimonius theory is more straight-forward, more likely
to be internally consistent and easier to connect with
reality than a complex theory that ties numerous
concepts together in many different ways.
Because it is simpler, it is also more likely to lead to
unambiguous and unequivocal predictions.
2012/13
UTILITY
Does the theory explain previously
inexplicable phenomena?
Does it increase your practical understanding
of communication, adding new insights?
Does it have heuristic valuedoes it
stimulate further conceptual and empirical
research?
2012/13
OPENESS
Theories, perhaps paradoxically, should not
exist to the absolute exclusion of other
theories.
Theory should not be dogma: it should
encourage and provide both for skepticism
and should--to whatever degree possible--be
compatible with other accepted theory.

2012/13
THEORY VS MODEL
Theory and Model, both involve concepts
and relationships between concepts.
Model is a conceptual realm (Jaccar &
Jacoby, 2010).
Model is portions of theories or derived from
theory (Sheth, 1967; Pap, 1962)
Model is simplified version of a theory
(Carnap, 1971)
2012/13

Science Dan Teori (Kedokteran)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Science Dan Teori (Kedokteran)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

SCIENCE AND THEORY

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen