Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures: Course Instructor

Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures

Course Instructor
Devinder Sokhi

Engineering Seismology
Study of generation, propagation and
recording of elastic waves in the earth
and of the sources that produce them.
An earthquake is a sudden tremor or
movement of the earths crust, which
originates naturally at or below the
surface of earth.
90% of the earthquake occur from
tectonic events, primarily movements on
the faults.
EARTHQUAKES ???
Remaining are related to volcanism,
man-made explosions etc.
Earthquake Damage
Tectonic earthquakes occur when the
accumulated strain exceeds the
shearing strength of the rock mass.
Elastic Rebound theory gives the
physical gnesis behind the earthquakes.
Sources of Earthquakes
NATURAL SOURCES
Tectonic Earthquakes
Volcanic Earthquakes
Rock falls
Collapse of Cavity
MAN MADE SOURCES
Controlled Sources
Reservoir Induced earthquakes
Mining Induced earthquakes
Cultural Noise
EARTHQUAKES
Vibration/wave like motion generated of
the earths surface due to the
movement of rock
Result of release of energy in the
earths crust
Energy release is caused by
Sudden Dislocations of segments of earth
Volcanic Eruptions
Human explosions
Seismic waves are generated due to
dislocations
Travel outward from the source causing
the earth to vibrate or quiver like a
tuning fork
Size and severity of earthquake is
estimated by
Magnitude: Measure of energy released
Intensity: Apparent effect experienced at specific
location

Earths plates create powerful
forces that ___ or ___ the rock
in the crust.

Squeeze

Pull
ORIGIN OF EARTHQUAKES
Stress
Stress: A force that acts on rock to
change its shape or volume
Energy is stored in rock until the
rock ______________.
either breaks or changes shape
Shearing
Shearing: Stress that pushes a mass of
a rock in opposite, horizontal directions

Tension
Tension: Stress that stretches rocks
so that it becomes thinner in the
middle

Compression
Stress that squeezes rock until it
folds or breaks
If shearing continues to tug at
the slab of rock in B, what will
happen to the rock?
The rock will
break; the two
parts will move in
opposite directions
How does stress forces affect
rock?

The three kinds of forces that
affect rock are:
Shearing
The rocks break and slip apart
Tension
The rock stretches and becomes thin in the
middle
Compression
The rock squeezes until it folds or breaks
These stresses work over millions of
years to change the shape and volume
of rock

Deformation
Deformation: A change in the volume or
shape of Earths crust

Most changes in the crust occur so
slowly that they can not be observed
directly
How does deformation change
Earths surface?
It causes it to
Bend
Stretch
Break
Tilt
Fold
Slide
FAULTS
A break in the Earths crust where
slabs of rock slip past each other

Faults occur when enough stress
builds up in rock

Rocks on both sides of the fault can
move up or down, or sideways
Strike-Slip Faults
A type of fault where rocks on either
side move past each other sideways
with little up-or down motion.
Shearing causes these types of faults
Normal Faults
A type of fault where the hanging
wall slides downward
Tension forces cause normal faults
Hanging Wall & Footwall
Hanging wall: The block of rock that
forms the lower half of a fault

Footwall: The block of rock that
forms the upper half of a fault
Reverse Faults
A type of fault where the hanging
wall slides up
Compression forces cause reverse
faults

Food For Thought

Why do faults form and
where do they occur?

Faults usually occur along plate
boundaries, where the forces of plate
motion compress, pull, or shear the
crust so much that the crust breaks
What is friction?
A force that opposes the motion of one
surface as it moves across another
surface
Friction exists because
surfaces are not perfectly smooth.
What occurs when the friction
along a fault line is low
The rocks on both sides of the fault
slide by each other without much
sticking

along a fault line is moderate.
The sides of the fault jam together

From time to time they jerk free

Small earthquakes occur

along a fault line is high.
Both sides of the fault lock together
and do not move

The stress increases until it is strong
enough to overcome the force of
friction

Larger and/or more frequent
earthquakes will occur
Fault-Block Mountain
A mountain that forms where a
normal fault uplifts a block of rock

Folds
A bend in rock that forms where part
of Earths crust is compressed
How does the compression of two
plates cause an earthquake?
The collisions of two plates can cause
compression and folding of the crust

Such plate collisions also lead to
earthquakes, because folding rock can
fracture and produce faults
Anticline
Anticline: An upward fold in rock
formed by compression of Earths
crust
Syncline
Syncline: A
downward fold in
rock formed by
tension in Earths
crust

Plateaus
A large area of flat land elevated high
above sea level
How does movement along
faults change Earths
surface?

Over millions of years, fault
movement can change a flat plain
into a towering mountain range

Mountain ranges can form from:
Fault block mountain
Folding
Anticlines & Synclines
Plateaus
Is the Earths Crust
One Solid Sheet?
The crust of Earth is actually broken into 12
main plates that fit together like puzzle
pieces.
Interior of Earth

Sequence of shells or layers : Geospheres

Barysphere: Core

Densest central part having inner and outer cores, Ni & Fe
in inner core behaving as solid, Ni & Fe with Si in outer
core which is in liquid form
Temp. of core is about 2500 Deg

Asthenosphere: Mantle
Hot , Dense, ultrabasic igneous rock in plastic state
Lithosphere : Crust
Thinnest Outer Solid Shell , 200 km thick, temp. of
25 Deg, pressure of 1 Atm.
Lithosphere and
Asthenosphere - Make the
World
Lithosphere - solid
Layer on the surface
Also called the
Crust.
Athenosphere - liquid
Also called the
Mantle

Core - solid
Made up of
Solid nickel and
iron
Lithosphere and
Asthenosphere - Make the
World
Lithosphere - solid
Layer on the surface
Also called the
Crust.
Athenosphere - liquid
Also called the
Mantle

Core - solid
Made up of
Solid nickel and
iron
Plate tectonics is a theory that explains the plates
that make up the Crust are floating and grinding
against each other.
The Floating Earth
The mantle is the layer of Earth just below the
crust. It is a made up of a liquid.
Because the mantle is liquid, the hard surface
of the Earth is actually floating.
The crust floating on the mantle is similar to
crackers floating on top of soup.
Whos Fault is it?
The space between two plates is called a fault.
Because earthquakes occur when two plates rub
together, they are often said to occur on fault
lines.
Plate Movement
Earths plates can move in three directions:

Divergent

Convergent

Transformational
This movement
forms an
earthquake
Outermost layer is broken into
segments called PLATES.
Plates comprise of crust and
upper mantle are floating in the
Asthenosphere, which is viscous
in nature.
Asthenosphere plays an important
role in plate tectonics because it
makes the movement of the
plates possible.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Epicentres of 99% of the
earthquakes are distributed along
narrow zones of Interplate
Seismic Activity.
Remainder of the earth is
Aseismic.
About 1% of earthquakes is due to
Interplate Seismic Activity.
Pioneer work was carried out by
Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist and Geophysicist.

Plate Tectonic Theory
He presented the Continental Drift
Theory in 1915.
At one time all the continents were
joined together into one huge super
continent which he named as
Pangaea.
At a later stage, the continents split
and move apart into their present
positions.
Interplate activity is the cause of
earthquakes.
Elastic Rebound Theory
Devastating earthquake of 1906, San
Francisco, California
Prof. Reid of John Hopkins University
concluded that earthquakes involve an
elastic rebound of previously stored
stress.
Gradual accumulation and release of
stress and strain is referred to as
ORIGIN OF EARTHQUAKES
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
Lava fills in, cools and
Continues to fill in the
Sea floor.
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
Land gets pushed up while
The ocean floor continues to
Be pushed down.
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
Land gets pushed up while
The ocean floor continues to
Be pushed down.
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
Ocean plate melts causing some
Of the lava to recirculate and some
To go up through a volcano
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Volcano explodes because
Lava moves through
cracks
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Volcano explodes because
Lava moves through
cracks
Explain the Elastic Rebound
Theory
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
If land is lifted too high, it
can crack resulting in a
9.0 earthquake
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
There are
Many earthquakes
In a subduction
zone
Land
Ocean
LAVA
volcano
Sea Floor Spreading
Subduction Zone
There are 1 dozen or so plates that make up the surface of the
Earth. Each of these plates are floating on the mantle. They
Are bumping and grinding on each other creating earthquakes.
How Does an Earthquake Form?
When plates try to move in opposite directions,
they put pressure on each other because they do
not want to slide past each other.
When the pressure gets too great the pressure
breaks and the plates are forced to slide. This
sliding, called friction, is rough and jerky which
causes the Earth to shake.
The Center of it All
The point where the plates experience
the friction is called the epicenter.
Where is the epicenter in this picture?
Epicenter
Who Feels the Shaking?
The shaking starts at the epicenter and
spreads in circles outward much like the
ripples of water dripping into a puddle.
Topics
What are the different kinds of
seismic waves?

How does the energy of an earthquake
travel through Earth?

What are the scales used to measure
the strength of an Earthquake?
There are about ______
earthquakes per day, worldwide.
8,000
Most earthquakes begin below
the earths surface in the
_______ within ______
kilometers from Earths
surface.
Lithosphere

100
Focus
The point beneath Earths surface
where rock breaks under stress and
causes an earthquake
Epicenter
The point on Earths surface directly
above an earthquakes focus
Seismic Waves
A vibration that travels through Earth
carrying the energy released during an
earthquake
At what point do seismic
waves first reach the surface?
The epicenter
What determines how much the
ground shakes during an
earthquake?
How close a location is to the
epicenter

The types of rock and soil
surrounding the epicenter determines
how much the ground shakes
What are the different
kinds of seismic waves?
There are three types of seismic
waves:
Primary Waves (P waves)
Secondary Waves (S waves)
Surface Waves
An earthquake sends out two types of
waves: P waves and S waves
When the waves reach Earths
surface at the epicenter, surface
waves (L- waves) develop.

Seismic Waves
The waves of shaking are called seismic
waves.
Primary Waves (P Waves)
A type of seismic wave that
compresses and expands the ground

The first wave to arrive at an
earthquake
Describe how P waves move?
P waves compress and expand
When P waves arrive they vibrate the
particles of the crust forward and
back along the path of the wave
Causes momentary change in volume of
the material through which they pass
No momentary change in shape takes
place.

Secondary Waves (S Waves)
A type of seismic wave that moves the
ground up and down or side to side
Also called Secondary Waves
Travel slowly than P-Waves in the same
material
Do not change the instantaneous volume
of the material through which they pass
Distort the instantaneous shape of the
material through which they pass
Secondary Waves (S Waves)
Wave Propagation Modes
Direction of
wave
propagation
Particle
motion
(Elliptical)
SURFACE WAVES
Rayleigh
Waves
Love
Waves
o Particles are polarized tgo vibrate in
vertical plane.
o Resulting particle motion is a combination
of P- and SV waves.
o Particle motion describes a retrograde
ellipse.
o Speed of wave is 0.9194 S wave speed.
.

Love waves are a type of surface wave formed by the constructive
interference of multiple reflections of SH waves at the free
surface.
Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (transverse).
Amplitude decreases with depth.
Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

LOVE WAVES
How are P waves different from
S Waves?
P waves compress and expand the
ground
These waves cause buildings to contract and
expand
P waves travel through solids and liquids

S waves vibrate from side to side
These waves vibrate from side to side and
thrust the ground up and down, or back and
forth
S waves can not move through liquids
Surface Waves
A type of seismic wave that forms when
P waves and S waves reach Earths
surface

Why do you think surface waves
produce more severe ground
movements than P waves and S
waves?
Surface waves travels through loose
soil, sand, gravel, mud, small rocks,
not solid rock

These more loose substances are
more likely shift and slide

Food For Thought
How does the energy of an
earthquake travel through Earth?
Seismic waves carry the energy of an
earthquake from the focus, through
Earths interior, to the epicenter, and
across the surface

Earthquake Size
Qualitative measure of earthquake size is
called INTENSITY.
Intensity at a particular site is classified on
the basis of local character of visible effects
it produces .
First Intensity scale was given by Rossi-
Forrel in 19
th
century.
It incorporated 10 stages describing effects
of increasing disaster.

In 1902, Italian seismologist G. Mercalli
proposed a more intensive scale.
It reclassified earthquake intensity in twelve
stages.
A modification in the form of Modified
Mercalli Scale (MMI) was proposed in 1931
to suit the building conditions in U.S.
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) scale
was introduced in Europe in 1964.
It also has 12 stages but differs from MMI
scale in many ways.
A new European scale- 12 stage was
introduced as EMS-European Macroseismic
Scale in 1992.
MSK and MMI scales are most
commonly used to seek information on
the severity of effects of earthquakes.
Intensity Ranges are expressed as
Roman Numerals.
Intensity varies from place to place
whereas the magnitude of an
earthquake is a constant figure.
Intensity I Not noticeable
Intensity V- Awakening
Intensity XII- Total Destruction
Mercalli Scale
A scale that rates earthquakes
according to their intensity and how
much damage they cause

Developed in the early twentieth
century
An earthquakes ______ is the
strength of ground movement in a
given place.
Intensity

The Mercalli scale has ______
steps and describes how an
earthquake affects ______,
______, and the ______.
12

People

Buildings

Land surface
ISOSEISMAL MAP
A contour on a map bounding areas of
equal intensity is an Isoseismal.
A map showing different isoseismals for
a particular earthquake is an Isoseismal
Map.
Intensity is usually strongest near the
epicentre and eventually decreases
with distance.
Local geology plays an important role
Magnitude
The measurement of an earthquakes
strength is based on seismic waves
and movement along faults.
It is a measure of amount of energy
released during an earthquake.
It is usually expressed as Richter
Magnitude.
To calculate magnitude, the amplitude
of the wave on a seismogram is
measured.
Correction is done for recording
distance between recording instrument
and epicentre.
Since magnitude is representative of
the earthquake itself, there is only
one magnitude of an earthquake.
Richter Scale
A scale that rates seismic waves as
measured by a particular type of
mechanical seismograph
The Richter Scale
The Richter scale is used to measure
how much shaking an earthquake causes.
The Richter scale gives each earthquake
a number from 1-10.
Less than 2 cannot be felt
2 and 4 can be felt but do not cause
damage
5 and 6 can cause damage
7-10 are major earthquakes and cause
severe damage

How does the Richter scale
measure an earthquake?
The Richter scale measures seismic
waves using a seismograph

Over time, mechanical seismographs
were replaced by electronic
seismographs
What is the strength and
weakness of the Richter scale
when measuring earthquakes?
Strength: Provides accurate
measurements for small, nearby
earthquakes

Weakness: Does not measure larger
and more distant earthquakes well
How are the Mercalli scale and the
Richter scale similar? How are they
different?
Both measure the strength of an
earthquake

The Mercalli scale measures the strength
in terms of extent people notice the
earthquake and the amount of damage
caused

The Richter scale measures the size of
seismic waves
The Moment Magnitude
Scale
Moment Magnitude Scale
A scale that rates earthquakes by
estimating the total energy released by
an earthquake
Why is the moment magnitude
scale used today by geologists to
measure earthquakes?
The moment magnitude scale determines
the total energy released by an earthquake
This scale uses a electronic seismograph
that can measure earthquakes that are big
or small, and near or far
Geologist examine movement along the
fault and the strength of broken rock
These two measurements give a more
accurate measurement of an earthquake

On which scale would an
earthquakes strength vary from
one place to another? Explain.
The Mercalli scale because the
amount of shaking that people would
feel and the damage to objects would
be greater in a place closer to the
earthquakes epicenter
Checkpoint :What are three scales
for measuring earthquakes? Explain
what each one measures.
Mercalli Scale
Measures earthquakes on how much damage they
cause

Richter Scale
Measures seismic waves using a seismograph
Measures small and nearby earthquakes

Moment Magnitude Scale
Looks at the total energy released
Measures large and distant earthquakes
Helps scientists predict how much fault movement
their was
How do scientists calculate how
far a location is from the
epicenter of an earthquake?
Scientists calculate the difference
between arrival times of the P waves
and S waves

The further away an earthquake is,
the greater the time between the
arrival of the P waves and the S
waves
Seismograph
A device that records ground
movements caused by seismic waves as
they move through Earth
Describe how a mechanical
seismograph records ground
movement.
A heavy weight attaches to a frame by
spring or wire
A pen connected to the weight rests its
point on a rotating drum
During an earthquake the seismic waves
cause the drum to shake while the pen
stays in place
The pen records lines on the paper around
the drum
There are at least ______
different measures for rating
earthquakes.
20
How Do We Measure An
Earthquake?
Earthquakes are measured using a
seismometer.
Measuring Earthquakes > Instrumentation
Seismometers have a large mass loosely coupled to the ground (loose springs) and other parts tightly
coupled to the ground, so that when the ground moves (and the loose mass doesn't), part of the
instrument moves relative to the other; then there is a bunch of mechanical or electrical engineering
wizardry to magnify this and make it easily detectable. What is recorded directly is usually
amplitude of ground displacement (linear): what is interesting from the whole-earth geophysics point
is energy, from the civil engineering point, acceleration. Both can be derived from the amplitude-
time relationships.

Measuring Earthquakes> Location
P-waves always travel faster than S-waves, and the delay depends on how far away they originated.
The velocity depends on the material, and this is used to find the structure of the earth and for
exploration.
By knowing the distance from several fixed points to the earthquake (based on travel time), you can
determine the location. (The Global Positioning System works just the opposite: by knowing the
travel-time from several satellites, you can determine your location.)
Knowing the direction of first motion also helps determine the type of fault motion.
A Homemade Seismometer
As the Earth shakes it causes the cup and
pencil to swing drawing lines on the paper.

Would a major earthquake make big lines
or small lines?
Measuring Earthquakes
Ancient Chinese began measuring
earthquakes in 780 BC
Devices below would determine direction
from which seismic waves originated
More modern
This is a simple design of a more modern
seismograph. Generally a seismograph
has 3 sensors to detect:

Vertical motion
E-W motion
N-S motion
Earthquake Damage
Collapsing structures
Falling objects
Flying glass
Landslides
Fires
Flooding
The quake itself doesnt usually cause many
deaths or injuriesthese result from the
DAMAGE caused by the earthquake
Duration matters!
The longer the ground shakes, the more
damage is likely to occur.
In fact, a lower magnitude quake which
lasts a long time may cause more damage
than a shorter, higher-magnitude quake.
Geology matters too
Solid bedrock shakes less than soft
sediments.
Sediments, especially sand, can shake so
hard they lose their strength and flow like
waterthis is called LIQUIFACTION
Marina District, San Francisco,1989
Built on landfill, debris from 1906 quake
MUCH heavier damage than in parts of city
built on bedrock
Tsunami!!!!
Japanese for harbor wave
Caused when epicenter of quake on
ocean floor
Faulting of ocean floor: triggers wave, or
Underwater landslides, which can trigger
multiple tsunamis
Warning system has been developed,
SSWWS: Seismic Sea Wave Warning
System

Earthquake Safety
Be prepared (this is a good idea for other natural
disasters we DO see more of, like hurricanes!)
Protect yourself from falling debris
Get in a doorway or under a desk/table
Stay away from windows/flying glass
In car, try to get away from tall buildings, power lines,
and bridges
Be cautious afterward:
Avoid broken glass, downed power lines
Turn off natural gas lines to prevent explosions
Predicting Earthquakes
Seismic gap theory:
Future earthquakes are more likely along immobile
parts of fault (locked) because the stress on the rocks
in this area is greater.
Other possible predictors:
Tilting of ground shortly prior to earthquake
Changes in magnetic/electrical properties of rocks
Changes in water levels of wells
Increased natural gas seepage
Decrease in speed of P waves for several days
years, with a sudden return to normal just before
quake.
Restless behavior of animals (Lassie always knew)

How do you locate an
epicenter?
You must have three different seismographs at three different
Locations - then you can pinpoint the different times each picked
Up the earthquake wave. You will do this in a lab.
epicenter?
epicenter?
epicenter?
epicenter?
Surface
focus
epicenter
A
B
epicenter?
Surface
focus
epicenter
A
B
Which seismic
Station will
Receive the
Wave first?
A or B
7. How is a tsunami generated?
Underwater earthquakes that jolt the
water. As it travels it gains height by
the beach.
8. Name some places in India that have
seen the most quakes - Why do you
think these are high risk zones?

9. List many ways one can prepare for
an earthquake
Have tools handy to turn off gas
Extra water and food
Ready made shelters
Extra medication
Have arraigned a place to call

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