Stars:

The beginning of
the end
HELIUM BURNING:
For stars that live most of their lives in the
main sequence, helium burning is the
beginning of the end. The overall
thermonuclear reaction for helium burning
is as follows:
3 He -> 1 C + energy released
HELIUM FUSES TO FORM
CARBON
Increase of core temp
hydrogen in the core is gone.
to maintain equilibrium between gravity
and gas pressure, it needs increased
temperatures in the core to re-ignite
fusion.
temperature of 1010
7
K to initiate helium
burning,
whereas temperature of 210
7
K to
initiate hydrogen burning.
Star increases in size
Helium burns inside the core,
but a rapid hydrogen reaction occurs
faster in the shell of the star.
As the temperature in the shell of the star
increases, the outer layers of the star
expand.
At this point, the star is often termed
a red giant.
What next ?
Eventually, the core will run out of helium
fuel, and in order to maintain equilibrium,
the core will contract again to initiate the
last type of fusion
carbon burning!
CARBON BURNING: Death

star after the red-giant phase evolution is
not known that certainly.
a star, regardless of its size, must
eventually run out of fuel and collapse.
In theory, GRAVITY WINS.
THE THREE END STATES
we will consider the death of stars and
group them into three categories
according to mass:
Low-Mass Stars (0.5 solar mass or less)
Medium-Mass Stars (0.5 solar mass to 3.0
solar mass)
Massive Stars (3.0 solar masses or larger)
Evolution of low mass star
A lower-mass star like the sun can survive for
billions of years, but after the hydrogen and
helium fuel is gone it cannot get hot enough to
fuse carbon.

This type of star dies by puffing off its outer
layers to produce expanding planetary nebulae.
These nebulae, which are the remains of dying
stars, serve as the birthplace for future
protostars.

H-R DIAGRAM POST MAIN
SEQUENCE
A low mass star becomes
a white dwarf
Low mass stars (0.08-5 SM during main
sequence) will go the planetary nebula route.
The core cannot contract and heat up to a
temperature needed to initiate carbon fusion.
Electrons degeneracy pressure prevents further
collapse.
A low mass core (<1.4 SM) shrinks to white
dwarf, composed mostly of carbon.
The size of the white dwarf is close to that of
earth, and the outer layers are planetary nebula.
A Planetary nebula with a
White dwarf at the centre
What happens to the white dwarf?
As a star contracts into a white dwarf, its
surface becomes very hot. But without
energy, it cannot sustain itself. Because
the core is out of fuel, the white dwarf will
eventually cool to a black dwarf. This will
take many billions of years to cool.
Degenerate gas pressure inside the core
continues to support the star so it doesnt
collapse.
Size and Mass
The smallest white dwarfs are the most
massive, and the largest white dwarfs are
the least massive.
Why is this?
The more massive star, because of its
gravitational force, is able to squeeze itself
into a smaller, more densely packed object
than can a less massive star.
Medium-mass stars become
neutron stars
A higher mass core (between 1.4-3 SM)
shrinks to neutron star.
Supernova happens when a neutron star
is created.
Neutron degeneracy pressure prevents
further collapse.
The size of a neutron star is about that of
a large city.
This supernova was first observed
in 1987 by the Hubble Telescope
(NASA)
The Supernova Explosion.
The overall reactions that occur for carbon
burning occur so rapidly and with so much
energy that the star blows apart in an explosion
called a supernova.
The outer layers of the star blast into space, and
the core is crushed to immense densities.
Carbon burning occurs when the helium in the
core is gone. The core needs to maintain
temperature to keep the gas pressure up;
otherwise the star cannot resist gravity.
When carbon burning does occur, iron is formed.
Iron is the most stable of all nuclei, and ends the
nuclear fusion process within a star.
When these heavier elements form in the core, they
take away energy rather than release it.
With the decrease in fuel for fusion, the temperature
decreases and the rate of collapse increases.
Just before the star totally collapses, there is a
sudden increase in temperature, density, and
pressure.
The pressure and energy compact the core further.
The compact core becomes a rapidly whirling ball of
neutrons, and thats why now this star is termed a
neutron star.

Onion Ring Structure at the last
stage before Supernova explosion
A model .
Supernova explosions happen because
the core has formed a very stiff neutron
star and the infalling outer layers rebound
off of it
Analogy: drop a basketball with a tennis
ball on top of it; see the tennis ball really
bounce off the basketball when the
basketball hits the floor.
THE MASS OF THE STAR
DECIDES.
Remember it was mentioned that the
amount of mass a star has at birth
determines how long it lives?
Well, heres the stage in star life where the
differences show up dramatically.
The largest mass stars may
become black holes
The highest mass star has a core that
shrinks to a point.
On the way to total collapse it may
momentarily create a neutron star and the
resulting supernova rebound explosion.
Gravity finally wins. Nothing holds it up.
Space so warped around the object that it
effectively leaves our space black hole!
The life cycle of a low mass star
and a high mass star .