Acoustical Measurements

1 2006 Nokia Acoustical measurements.
ppt / 2006-04-19 / IJ
Acoustical
measurements
Iiro Jantunen
Nokia Research Center
19.4.2006

S-108.4010 Licentiate course in
measurement science and
technology

2 2006 Nokia Acoustical measurements.ppt / 2006-04-19 / IJ
Contents
Principles of acoustics
Acoustics measurements
Microphone
Sound pressure level
measurements
Sound intensity
measurements
Calibration
SoundField
Principles of acoustics
Sound waves in gas or liquid
No shear forces
no transverse waves
purely longitudinal waves
Audible sound range 20 Hz 20 kHz
Fully described by 3 variables
Pressure
Particle velocity
Density

Wave equations of sound
Eulers equation
Newtons 2nd law (F=ma)
applied to fluid

Continuity equation
Bringing extra air to a volume
increases density

State equation
Relates pressure changes to
density
Wave equation of sound
Previous wave equations
used pressure, density and
particle velocity
Eliminating density and
particle velocity the wave
equation of sound is
obtained
Two basic solutions:
Plane wave

Spherical wave
Free field acoustics
Sound propagates to all
directions without diffraction,
reflection or absorption
Spherical waves
In principle, infinite, empty
space without reflections
In practice, anechoic
chamber, with near 100%
absorptive walls

Free field microphone
Intended to measure the sound
pressure as it existed before the
microphone was introduced
Microphone pointed to source
Microphone tip causes an increase
in sound pressure
Taken care of by internal
acoustical damping to achieve flat
frequency response

Diffuse field random incidence
microphone
Sound reflects from many
directions sound comes to
microphone from every direction
In practice achieved in a
reverberation room with 100%
reflective and unparallel walls
Microphone diffracts the sound
waves from different directions in
different ways
Combined influence depends on
directional distribution of sound
waves
Standard distribution based on
statistical considerations used for
random incidence microphone
Closed coupler
Chamber with small
dimensions compared to
sound wavelength
Special case:
standing wave tube
Diameter smaller than sound
wavelength

Source at the end
Possible to calculate the
sound field
Used in calibration
Used in microphone
calibration
Pressure microphone
Measuring the actual
pressure on a wall
Typically used in closed
coupler for calibration
Microphone directionality
Directionality indicates the sensitiveness of a microphone to
sound coming from different directions
No microphone is perfectly omnidirectional
Cardioid or hypercardioid commonly used to record vocals
Most ribbon microphones are bi-directional
Shotgun directionality used outdoors for TV/film production
and wildlife recordings

Parabolic microphone
Parabolic reflector used to
collect sound waves to
microphone
Very directional
For eavesdropping in e.g.
spying
Microphone transducers
Condenser microphones
Electret capacitor microphones
Dynamic microphones
Ribbon microphones
Carbon microphones
Piezoelectric microphones
Laser microphones
Condenser microphone
Diaphragm and backplate
form a plate capacitor
Charge kept constant
voltage varies as
pressure actuates the
diaphragm
External voltage supply or
pre-charged diaphragm
Acoustical performance
determined by physical
dimensions
Condenser microphone cont
The larger the diaphragm, the
more sensitive the microphone
Upper limit is defined by
diaphragm touching the backplate
The smaller the microphone, the
greater the frequency range
Increasing tension extends range
but decreases sensitivity
Optimum size of a measurement
microphone is (up to 20 kHz) is
about 12.6 mm (1/2)
Damping effect of air reduced by
drilling holes in the backplate

Electret microphone
Invented at Bell Labs in 1962 by
Gerhard Sessler and Jim West
Diaphragm permanently polarized
the same way as permanent
magnets magnetized (electrostatic
magnet)
Once considered low price and low
quality
Now most common microphone
type

Dynamic microphone
A movable coil is attached to the
diaphragm
An unmovable magnet produces a
magnetic field
Moving diaphragm moves the coil
in the magnetic field, inducing a
measurable current
Exactly same principle as in
loudspeakers, only reversed
Poor low-frequency response
reduces handling noise
Robust, relatively inexpensive and
resistant to moisture
widely used on-stage
Ribbon microphones
Revolutionized recording and
broadcast industry in the 30s
Special type of dynamic
microphones
Thin metal ribbon between poles
of magnet
Voltage output typically low
compared to normal dynamic
microphones
Bidirectional
Very sensitive and accurate
Generally delicate and expensive

Carbon microphones
Invented by David Hughes in 1878
Very important in the history of
telephone
Sound pressure (AP) presses the
diaphragm (2) to a bed of carbon
granules (1). Contact resistance
depends on the pressure
resitance R changes
Also an amplifier
Extremely low-quality sound
reproduction
Very limited frequency range
Very robust

Piezo microphones
Piezoelectric material
Diaphragm moves the armature to
bend piezoelectric crystal over a
fulcrum
Small size, cheap, low quality
Have replaced carbon
microphones
Often used as
contact microphones to sound
instruments
underwater or other unusual
environments
Laser microphones
Window of a room acting as
diaphragm
Reading with laser beam reflected
from the window
Two laser beams for common
mode rejection of large window
movements and path disturbances
For eavesdropping
Works best with one-glass
windows
Sound level measurements
Measurement of sound pressure filtered by
frequency (A-weighting)
time-domain (RMS)
Mimics response of human ear to noise
Human hearing frequency response
A-weighting curve
For subjective responses in special cases there are B-, C- and D-weighting curves
very high or low level
special noise, e.g., of aircraft
Sound level measurements
IEC International Standard 651 Sound Level Meters
Tolerances per frequency band defined for 4 classes
of accuracy
Type 0: precision laboratory use
Type 1: general purpose
Type 2: low price
Type 3: not used in practice (too wide tolerances)
Sound intensity measurements
no. x/r y/r z/r
1 -0.99 0 0.15
2 0.5 -0.86 0.15
3 0.5 0.86 0.15
4 -0.45 0.77 0.45
5 -0.45 -0.77 0.45
6 0.89 0 0.45
7 0.33 0.57 0.75
8 -0.66 0 0.75
9 0.33 -0.57 0.75
10 0 0 1.00
ISO Standard 3745 Acoustics
Determination of sound power
levels of noise sources
Precision method for anechoic
and semi-anechoic rooms
Two-microphone probe
Measures the sound intensity in
two directions
Pressure is mean of the two
measured pressures
Air particle velocity calculated from
the two pressures

All intensity is in radial direction,
no intensity in perpendicular

Powerful tool to locate noise
sources
Calibration techniques
Reciprocity calibration method
Comparison or substitution methods
Pistonphone (closed coupler)
Sound pressure calibrator
Electrostatic actuation
Reciprocity calibration method
Microphone can be used as
a loudspeaker
Three test microphones
measured against each
other alternating the function
As a result a set of 3
equations with microphone
sensitivities as unknowns
Very accurate
Rather tedious
Requires well-controlled
environment
Seldom used in practical
situations
Comparison/substitution methods
Microphone measured related to a
reference microphone
Comparison method: microphone and
reference at the same time
Substitution method: microphone put in the
lace of the reference
Sound source stability
Pistonphone
Closed coupler
Well-defined sound pressure
level
Relatively simple
mechanically, very stable
Used often as the sound
source in
comparison/subsitution
calibration
Accuracy around 0.1 dB
Depends on
Volume of the coupler
Volume displacement
Barometric pressure
Humidity
Heat dissipation
Sound pressure calibrator
Small, self-contained
Comparison calibrator
Closed coupler
Small loudspeaker produces
single-frequency signal
Reference microphone gives
feedback signal
Well-defined, provided that
reference microphone and
feedback gain are stable
For field-calibration of
microphones
Normally not for laboratory
calibrations
Electrostatic calibration
Direct use of electrostatic
actuator to drive the
diaphragm
800 V DC
50-150 V AC signal
Generally used to measure
frequency response of
microphones
Widely used as a convenient
and accurate test method
For production and final
calibration of measurement
microphones
SoundField microphone
3D view of the sound with a single
device
4-channel measurement of sound:
B-format
The spatial pattern can be decided
later
Mono, stereo, 5.1,
Fairly expensive, but replaces
effectively a system of many
microphones
http://www.soundfield.com

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